9 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/4138b092831d62ca23cee3842775cd46.jpg 34c876bf37931eae161e95ce54580c8e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Palace of Versailles Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Architects: Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart Photo: Pierre Lepautre Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Maddie Gartland Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Louis XIV's enlargements completed around 1710 Drawing: 1715 Description An account of the resource The Palace of Versailles began its life in 1624 as the hunting lodge of Louis XIII, which he later made into a chateau, moving also to vastly expand the lands of the estate. His successor, Louis XIV, had little interest in the chateau until the early 1660s, when he became very passionate about the site and decided to enlarge it substantially. The palace has a vaguely U-shaped layout, the center of which houses the preserved chateau facade; from here, secondary symmetrical wings form an extensive courtyard called the Royal Court, flanked by two immense asymmetrical wings. While the original chateau was built in the Louis XIII style, Louis XIV's extensive additions and modifications were largely in line with the French classical style, and Louis XVI's alterations in the mid-1700s were neoclassically inclined; thus architecturally, Versailles is a true mixture of French stylistic impulses over the course of a century ("Palace of..."). Italian baroque inspiration and influence is also present in the palatial ornamentation added by the various architects. In addition, the intricate, expansive gardens on the palace grounds were a herculean feat of landscaping; flowers were planted in exquisite patterns, numerous elaborate water features accompanied the green spaces, and impressive themed groves resembled outdoor rooms with greenery for walls. Architecturally and aesthetically, Versailles was a place of great opulence and extensive style. Along with being a physical representation of the wealth and power of King Louis XIV, Versailles became a powerful political center, with unprecedented importance in the establishment and maintenance of the Sun King's power. First and foremost, the palace's stunningly ostentatious ornamentation was intended to impress visitors and incite in them a sense of awe for the king's wealth and power, that he could afford to live so lavishly, practically drowning in the richness of the atmosphere ("Versailles:..."). On the more strategic side of things, Louis XIV's fixation on Versailles took him outside of Paris, where previous kings and courts had conducted political business. This was a potentially risky move, but it only increased the king's power: the successful reestablishment at Versailles meant that his authority was respected, and that his court and political institutions were willing to follow him. It also forced those who sought an audience with the king to come specifically to him, even his own nobles and political players, in contrast to being located conveniently in Paris ("Courtiers"). This remote quality also meant that a staggering number of nobles remained at Versailles practically all the time in order to be close to the king, and to take advantage of every single opportunity to display loyalty and reverence to him personally. This system allowed Louis XIV, who was very wary of noble power, to keep his nobles close and in some ways confined, so that he could keep a close eye on them ("Courtiers"). The Palace of Versailles is thus an ideal example of architecture's place in state-building, and also of a building with a variety of purposes and characteristics appealing to a complicated functional goal. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pierre_Lepautre_-_Les_Plans,_Profils,_Et_Elevations,_Des_Ville,_Et_Ch%C3%A2teau_De_Versailles_-_1714_et_1715_-_Vue_du_Chate%C3%A2u_Royal_de_Trianon_dans_le_parc_de_Versailles.jpg "Versailles: A Political Landscape." Radford University. Accessed October 20, 2018. https://www.radford.edu/~rbarris/art216upd2012/Versailles.html "Palace of Versailles." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Last modified October 17, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palace-of-Versailles "Courtiers." Chateau de Versailles. Accessed October 20, 2018. http://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/history/key-dates/courtiers Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain, free re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/86e7025d4b5359d7d5afe4f9e97f1aa6.jpg a35df2137f0d786b37cbb9c6c7ccc3d9 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photo taken by Harrie Gielen of the inside of Saint Willibrord's Basilica Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image (1,880 × 2,816 pixels Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Photo of the Inside of Saint Willibrord's Basilica Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Harrie Gielen Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Teddy Wolfe Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 14 September 2009 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Gielen, Harrie. Nederlands: Koorkerk van de Sint-Willibrordusbasiliek Te Hulst. [object HTMLTableCellElement]. Own work. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Willibrordus_Hulst_01.jpg. Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 27-28. “Sint-Willibrordusbasiliek Saint Willibrord’s Basilica.” Wikipedia, n.d. https://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&prev=search&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=nl&sp=nmt4&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint-Willibrordusbasiliek&xid=17259,15700023,15700124,15700149,15700186,15700190,15700201,15700214&usg=ALkJrhg7pTbaDBDCnyhRtV7CKP0606P0Sg#cite_note-2. “Netherlands Reformed Church | Dutch Protestant Denomination.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed October 20, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Netherlands-Reformed-Church. Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks, "Politics and Power, 1600-1789" in Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 335 “Romaanse Architectuur Romanesque Architecture.” Wikipedia, n.d. https://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&prev=search&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=nl&sp=nmt4&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaanse_architectuur&xid=17259,15700023,15700124,15700149,15700186,15700190,15700201,15700214&usg=ALkJrhiudeXQByCygtsAXC8hX98orgBiXQ. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource CC BY-SA 3.0 (Free to Share) Description An account of the resource Saint Wilibrord’s Basilica was built in Hulst, Netherlands sometime around 1200, before gradually being renovated and improved upon over the years (Wikipedia). The Basilica was originally Roman Catholic, with architecture in the Romanesque fashion. This style was especially prominent in France and Spain, and can be seen in the Basilica’s rounded interior arches and round arch stained-glass windows (Wikipedia). Then, in the late 15th century, the building underwent renovations from Everaert Spoorwater, one of the founding fathers of the Brabant Gothic movement. He innovated by refining the pillars, and adding a pointed arch found at the top of the structure (not seen in the photo) (Wikipedia). These architectural improvements predated the Eighty Years’ War, but signify, in part, the gradual move away from Spanish influence within the Netherlands— as they developed new styles independent of Spain. The Basilica would then further represent the shift as it moved from Roman Catholicism toward the Dutch Reformed Church by the end of the Eighty Years’ War. The Eighty Years’ War was heavily influenced by Spanish religious doctrine, as many in the Netherlands hated Spain’s attempts to create ecclesiastical hierarchies in their lands and disliked the Inquisition (Israel, 27-28). The people wanted greater control over their religion, an idea given to them in part through the Protestant Reformation that was sweeping throughout the lands around that time (Israel, 27-28). The Basilica represents this shift, both in architectural style and religion, and its gradual renovation demonstrates how new local ideas led to the Dutch revolting in 1568. Architecture Church Netherlands spain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/f70b3afc8c61ac0dd4ccd781f2bdbd68.jpg c686d5fce5ead61c268e7f22c3e8a965 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Height: 700mm Width: 580mm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Vertumnus Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Giuseppe Archimboldo Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Andrew Fitch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1591 Description An account of the resource Rudolph II was a Hapsburg who served as Holy Roman Emperor from 1576 - 1612. While his reign is mostly remembered for his strange behavior and his lack of political competence, he was also one of the most important patrons to the arts and sciences in Europe during his time. Two of his most prominent clients were Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, both of whom made major developments in the field of astronomy (Bos). Additionally, Rudolph combined his interest in science with an emphasis on magic, especially alchemy (Bos). Lastly, Rudolph II was also fascinated in Renaissance and Humanist artwork, an interest that is perhaps best exemplified by in his self-portrait Vertumnus in which Rudolph is depicted using various foods. Despite his role in the development of Northern Renaissance art and the launching of the scientific revolution, Rudolph is most remembered for his mental deterioration and political incompetence. Over the course of his reign, Rudolph developed a sense of paranoia that turned him into a recluse, causing him to retreat from public affairs (Rudolph II). Additionally, he would occasionally suffer fits of uncontrollable rage and experience mental breakdowns (Bos). Rudolph’s political infamy is a result of his role in causing the 30 Years War in 1618 (Rudolph II). This role is evident in that the Protestant Union, a military alliance that played a crucial role in the escalation of the 30 Years war, formed under Rudolph's reign (Wiesner-Hanks 321). He also reversed many of the tolerant religious policies that were passed by his father, Maximilian II, and sought to limit the privileges of Protestant estates, resulting in even more tension between Protestant and Catholic territories in Germany (Rudolph II). Due to Rudolph’s deteriorating mental condition his brother Mattias, supported by the rest of his family, would go on to seize control of Hapsburg holdings in 1608, leaving Rudolph with only his imperial title until his death in 1612 (Rudolph II). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vertumnus_årstidernas_gud_målad_av_Giuseppe_Arcimboldo_1591_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_91503.tiff Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/fd0a922c148f3768cd55aa8e455b53ad.jpeg 95c0f82b4ded1978325c21e48acac3aa Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Digital photo Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 1,200 × 1,600 pixels Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Monument of Spanish King Philip IV on Place de Oriente, Madrid Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Aklyuch Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 17 July 2006 Description An account of the resource Perhaps the most famous figure of the Scientific Revolution is the Italian mathematician Galileo Galilei, known for his contributions to the fields of astronomy and physics. He famously quarreled with the Inquisition due to controversy over his religious interpretations of his astronomical discoveries (Freedberg 123), finally resulting in Galileo’s house arrest in 1633 that would last until his death in 1642. This did not stop him, however, from making great contributions to science and culture. Lost among the many advances attributed to Galileo is the Monument to King Philip IV if Spain. King Philip IV ruled Spain from 1621 to 1665, which coincided with both the Spanish Golden Age and the Scientific Revolution. Philip commissioned the creation of an equestrian statue of himself similar to the famous statue of his father, Philip III. Italian sculptor Pietro Tacca, who worked on this project from 1633 to 1640, undertook an impossible challenge to support the statue only using the hind legs of the horse. This task had never been successfully completed, and common practice was to have the horse stand on at least three legs so that the weight of the statue could be evenly distributed. Tacca eventually contacted Galileo to help him solve this problem. Galileo’s solution was to hollow the front of the horse while keeping the back solid so that a majority of the statue’s weight would be over the rear legs. He also recommended having the tail connect to the base of the statue, which would provide more support to the rear (Valentiner 36). Galileo’s propositions were successfully implemented, and the equestrian statue of Philip IV still stands today as a monument of Galileo’s ingenuity. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carlos-IV.JPG Freedberg, David. The Eye of the Lynx: Galileo, His Friends, and the Beginnings of Modern Natural History. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2004. Valentiner, W. R. "AN EQUESTRIAN STATUETTE OF PHILIP IV OF SPAIN." Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts of the City of Detroit 15, no. 3 (1935): 34-38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41501407. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/5a0fa8da05a9da82edef2453750e95e9.jpg 2dcf9d9a7c770a809af18a76a8a963f9 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Locke's Two Treatises of Government Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John Locke Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cassidy Bins Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Thomas Hollis (London: A. Millar et al., 1764). [Online] available from http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/222; accessed 10/21/2018; Internet. John Locke. “Two Treatises of Civil Government.” Online Library of Liberty, Liberty Fund. Web. (http://oll.libertyfund.org/pages/john-locke-two-treatises-1689) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1689 Description An account of the resource John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government reflect the anti-absolutist sentiments woven throughout England’s political fabric. He outlined the Law of Nature and how it granted each person the right to life, liberty, health, and property, maintaining that one owned a resource -- say, a certain plot of land -- if one put one’s labor into it (Locke). Locke’s views on private property were relevant in the New World as well as in the Old. In England, they sowed the seeds for discord as peasants became increasingly cognizant of ownership and complained to the nobles about taxation; in America, both the Puritan work ethic and the mindset that labor equaled ownership presented a unique problem for colonies, involving not just the rulers overseas but the Native Americans who had already established their own civilizations (Locke). Though Locke supported government over anarchy due to his belief that society was integral to maintaining order and keeping man’s inherent selfishness in check, he was a prominent proponent of social contract theory, which requires consent of both the ruler and the ruled for the contract to be validated (Locke). Moreover, he asserted the right of the ruled to overthrow their ruler when their rights were infringed upon (Locke). These ideas were essential to the philosophy underlying later revolutions, including the French Revolution. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/257e3eecb25b96e3a0f2ede3465db414.jpg 2fd4be45cb247fd4c2a4829be33cfec9 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Façade of Santa Maria Novella Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Leon Battista Alberti Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1470 Description An account of the resource Santa Maria Novella (New St. Mary) is a famous gothic church in Florence, Italy. The church's construction began around 1278 and was completed in 1350. The early Rennaisance-era façade of the church was completed by Leon Battista Alberti in 1470 ("Santa Maria Novella:.."). To this day, the marble façade by Alberti remains as one of the most well-known works of early Italian Renaissance architecture. Alberti took a great amount of inspiration from the Parthenon for the top section. The use of white marble, as well, pays homage to ancient Greek architecture. The attention to harmony on the façade, at the time, stood out from other, old-style, churches in Florence. Despite its simple look at first glance, there are many complex parts that come together to form an elegant unit at the end. The Greek-inspired column, for example, are spaced out according to exact values ("Santa Maria Novella."). The small arches are all identical in height and their placings are symmetrical. The main door is in the middle and everything else revolves around it. Just like Brunelleschi's architecture, the proportions were calculated according to the golden ratio and geometrical rules. Alberti, besides being an artist and a craftsman, was a classicist, poet, scientist, and mathematician. Artists like Alberti and Brunelleschi were getting praised and acknowledged for their artistic contributions to society. The "Renaissance Man", as Alberti put it, was a man who could do as he willed. Consequently, Santa Maria Novella marks a significant change in the transition from the Gothic era to the Renaissance ("Renaissance Man"). References: "Renaissance Man." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/ "Santa Maria Novella." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/ "Santa Maria Novella: Church and Cloisters." The Museums of Florence. Accessed November 18, 2018. http://www.museumsinflorence.com/musei/santa_maria_novella-cloist.html. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kaan Taskintuna Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource (CC BY-SA 3.0), Free to share with appropriate credit https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/3bc1d473c86b30d5273fd89de116cb57.jpg c7be14740f03aae449c20ddfead7abb5 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/618b2370fd1371f3dd275aee11599b72.jpg f42091780405e63eded2f3ba37ad9229 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Image 1: Photograph Image 2: Photograph Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ons' Lieve Heer op Solder Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kaan Taskintuna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Mid-17th Century Description An account of the resource Ons' Lieve Heer op Solder (Our Lord in the Attic) is a clandestine Catholic church located in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The building itself had been an ordinary canal house since the 14th century. However, its interior was converted to a secret Catholic Church following the religious conflicts and social tension within the Netherlands in the mid-1600s ("Museum..."). When the Reformation wave with Lutheranism began, Netherlands' religious structure was not shaken as much as other countries. The Catholic Church held its ground and was aiming to increase their dominance. However, Calvinism was much more influential and successful compared to Lutheranism. When Calvinism struck Netherlands about two decades after Lutheranism (around 1540s), the religious tension within Dutch society led to a surge of iconoclasm in 1566. This sudden explosion of iconoclasm during the Reformation became known as the "Beeldenstorm" which translates to "statute storm" in English. Catholicism was now being oppressed as its was being attacked in an aggressive and riotous manner ("Netherlands"). Calvinism's and the Dutch Reformed Church's forceful rise to dominancy meant the defeat of the Catholic Church in the Netherlands (both socially and territoralily). Ons' Lieve Heer op Solder, in a sense, is a symbol of the change and chaos brought by the Reformation. Although this clandestine church was not built in the same century, the Reformed Church continued their dominancy. It represents the oppressive atmosphere of the time period in which religious tolerance was not present. References: "Museum Ons' Lieve Heer Op Solder." Ons' Lieve Heer Op Solder. November 02, 2017. Accessed November 16, 2018. https://www.opsolder.nl/en. "Netherlands." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Image 1: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ons%27_Lieve_Heer_op_Solder#/media/File:Ons%27_Lieve_Heer_op_Solder_2396.jpg Image 2: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Onze_lieve_heer_op_zolder.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Image 1: Courtesy of Amsterdam Municipal Department for the Preservation and Restoration of Historic Buildings and Sites (bMA). Permission to use as long as the copyright holder is given credit Image 2: CC BY-SA 4.0, Free to share https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/677268bf95ea801c181a974c8ada35e2.pdf 18cc6468c9c5747d0a885acb9296fdce Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Paper Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Edict of Restitution Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ferdinand II Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Andrew Fitch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1629 Description An account of the resource The Edict of Restitution was published by Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II in 1629. It laid out a set of orders that had the potential to marginalize Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire and pave the way for a centralized and unified Germany. Ferdinand’s intended audience was for this edict was the Protestant estates scattered throughout Germany. In the Edict, Ferdinand framed his points and orders as being unbiased and done in the name of justice. He did this by claiming that Protestant estates were in direct violation of the principles laid out in the Peace of Augsburg and the Treaty of Passau, citing the illegal conversion of Catholic territories to Protestantism (Brady 2). Furthermore, any grievances that the Protestant states made were refuted by Ferdinand using these same principles (Brady 2). Yet despite his attempts to feign objectiveness, he was clearly biased towards Catholicism due to his end goal of building a more unified Catholic state in Germany. This goal is evident when viewed through the relevant historical context of the time. Over the last eleven years, the Catholic League was having immense success against the Protestant Union in the early years of the 30 Years War (Wiesner-Hanks 322). This shows that Ferdinand’s marginalization of Protestants was an attempt to capitalize on his recent victories by consolidating and expanding his power. Perhaps the most significant portion of the Edict is the last few paragraphs in which Ferdinand declares that lands, including bishoprics, hospitals, and monasteries, that had converted to Protestantism since the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 must be returned to Catholic rule (Brady 3). Again, Ferdinand didn’t frame this order as an attempt to seize and consolidate power, but as an issue “on which the Peace principally depends”. Another important passage is Ferdinand’s reaffirming of the unlawfulness of other Protestant sects, particularly Calvinism, when he says, “adherents of the Confession of Augsburg have no grounds for complaint that their fellow religionists, who possess or desire to take over ecclesiastical foundations, bishoprics, and prelacies immediate to the Empire” (Brady 2). This again shows Ferdinand's goal of undermining Protestantism in Germany. Unfortunately for Ferdinand, the string of victories that inspired him to pass his Edict would not last as other countries banded against him in order to prevent his dream of a powerful, centralized German state of coming to fruition (Wiesner-Hanks 322). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived “The Catholic Triumph - The Edict of Restitution (March 6, 1629)”, a document by Ferdinand II. Translated by Thomas Brady Jr. In From the Reformation to the 30 Years War (1500 1648), edited by Gunther Fraz, volume 1. German History in Documents and Images, German Historical Institute, Washington, DC (http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=5403). Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Used with permission https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/ff61ccb71efcd4d45befe42773fc5824.jpg 6a35516804feb4b9f75fc6694de96b6c Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Height: 45.4 cm Width: 58.5 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster, 15 May 1648. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gerard ter Borch Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Andrew Fitch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1648 Description An account of the resource The Peace of Westphalia, as represented in the above image of the ratification of the treaty of Münster, finally brought an end to the 30 years war in 1648. (Wiesner-Hanks 323). This peace had major impacts on all of Europe, but especially the political landscape of the Holy Roman Empire. Protestantism was reaffirmed in the North and larger principalities became effectively sovereign, thus ending Hapsburg hopes of forming a unified German state (Wiesner-Hanks 323). In addition to these impacts, the Peace of Westphalia also played a major role in shaping German politics, culture, and society all the way through the demise of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. However, there is some dispute regarding the exact outcome it caused. Many historians in the mid 20th century, such as A. J. P. Taylor and Geoffrey Barraclough, believed that there was an extended period of societal and cultural deterioration in Germany following the peace of Westphalia. Barraclough would go on to claim. “for a century and more after 1648 Germany stagnated. Petty dynasties, class-bound nobilities and corrupt oligarchies, all guided by narrow motives of self-interest, exercised a harsh and oppressive domination over a peasantry and a middle class both ruined by the Thirty Years War.” (Blanning 2). These bleak views of a backward empire that exploits its own people are then epitomized by Taylor when he says that when the Empire finally fell in 1806 that, “it left no gap, for it had been a nullity since 1648.” (Blanning 2). In stark contrast to this old view, contemporary historians, like Tim Blanning, assert that the Peace of Westphalia allowed Germany to flourish, both culturally and politically, as it never had before. Blanning believes that the positive impact of the Peace of Westphalia, apart from ending the war, it that it acted as a durable written constitution for the Holy Roman Empire that would last until the Empire’s fall (Blanning 3). Furthermore, Blanning supports the belief that this is actually a parliamentary constitution that resulted in an active and transparent form of government where the rule of law prevailed over absolutism (Blanning 4). Moreover, Blanning claims that the autonomy granted to various German principalities following the Peace resulted in a de facto Freedom of the Press in Germany because, “what could not be published in Prussia could be published in Württemberg, and what could not be published in Hamburg could be published ten paces away in [Danish-ruled] Altona.” (Blanning 7). Thus, not only does Blanning claim Germany enjoys the freedom of the press, but also that it stems from the peace of Westphalia itself. Regarding the two opposing views on the status of the Holy Roman Empire during its later years, I concur with Blanning. While the opposition is correct in saying that the Peace of Westphalia ended any chance of the formation of a unified German state, this idea is not inherently linked to the deterioration of society. On the contrary, the weakened centralized government allowed Germany to flourish in many ways. Since Hapsburg hopes of forming a nation were ended, their rule would go on to be characterized by an emphasis on their own domain rather than the empire. This can be linked to Austrian state development that occurred in the 17th century and the enlightened ideals that took place there. The following decades would also see the rise of Prussia; a state that was even able to challenge the power of the Hapsburgs and also contributed to the spread of the enlightenment. Thus, although the Holy Roman Empire was forever changed following the Peace of Westphalia, this event should be viewed more as a transition for the empire rather than the end of its story. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_(Gerard_Terborch_1648).jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/d2271ad9132204742adc8dbc0bd83e7b.jpeg 30edfb4d4a79cf1c08cea77ce56494ad Physical Object An inanimate, three-dimensional object or substance. Note that digital representations of, or surrogates for, these objects should use Moving Image, Still Image, Text or one of the other types. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Post medieval Spanish Coin Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Seville Mint Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Spain Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1599 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived The Portable Antiquities Act Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use Description An account of the resource During the early 17th Century Europe underwent a large-scale currency crisis due in large part to the near constant state of war during the century. In no place was this more apparent than in Spain where the real had undergone tremendous inflation as result of the importation of silver from Spain’s New World holdings that had flooded the market with new coins (Elliott, 329). To make matters worse, the imports of silver began to drastically decrease during the 30 years war as a result of overexploitation in American, repeated appropriation by the Spanish government, and the resultant lack of confidence among Spanish merchants (Elliott, 339). One of the clearest examples of Spain’s diminishing power during this period was its inability to control Brazil despite controlling Portugal. They were repeatedly unable to wrest control from the Dutch who had controlled Brazil since 1630 (Elliott, 333). These circumstances had profound impacts on Spain that forever changed the power structure of Europe and the Atlantic World. The economic breakdown of Spain coupled with its weak monarchy led to increased weakening in the structure of the already tenuous monarchy. Disagreements about taxes, protection, and government control led to unrest in Andalusia (where Seville is located), Aragon, and Valencia, while Catalonia and Portugal were in open revolt. The loss of Portugal in 1640 as result of an internal revolt. (Cowans, 180). Portugal went on to be one of the strongest maritime powers during the remainder of the 17th century, eclipsing the former power of Spain. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/6c4a93ed6a762d2b5c4c625673b0ac5e.JPG d8b4e554c390c00d470a000f168fa7b7 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/bbb91137611e777133388fc015c4af18.jpg e0754d9eef6cfb938a77ef2476f38e39 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data interior: photograph exterior: photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image interior: 6000 x 5230 exterior: 2447 x 2423 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. Paul's Cathedral, London Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Interior view: David Illif Exterior view: Steve Cadman Architect: Christopher Wren Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Brendan Glenn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Completed 1710 Description An account of the resource St. Paul’s Cathedral in London is a magnificent building, a titanic Latin cross of ornately-carved white limestone capped by a lead dome which soars 280 feet (not counting its lantern or its cross) over the streets of London (Britannica). The Baroque cathedral combines a Continental architectural sensibility with a distinctly English attitude to architecture, religion, and even secular power. St. Paul’s Cathedral is built on the site of several older buildings, mostly older cathedrals of St. Paul but also including, supposedly, a Roman temple to the goddess Diana. This latest iteration of the structure was planned and built under the supervision of the architect Christopher Wren after the previous St. Paul’s Cathedral, which had been badly damaged after the troops of Lord Protector of England James Cromwell had used it as a barracks, burnt down during the 1666 Great Fire of London. Wren was commissioned by the English government, which had itself recently been restored from Cromwell’s Protectorate to a monarchy ruled by Charles II, to create a new cathedral to replace the one which had been destroyed, and he did so with aplomb. Aside from the aforementioned massive dome (which is actually composed of three layers: the outer lead dome, an inner masonry dome adorned with frescoes, and a hidden brick cone in between the two to provide structural support), the cathedral boasts a Greco-Roman-style facade, with a two-story Corinthian colonnade and pediment. The Corinthian columns continue around the exterior of the cathedral, sometimes as full columns on the semicircular porticos which open from the secondary facades at the ends of the transept and sometimes as pilasters which frame the building’s windows in sets of two. The tholus (circular colonnade) beneath the cathedral’s dome and the pediments over the second-story windows also refer to classical architecture. The building is marked as baroque, however, by the ornate designs which cover it (e.g. relief carvings of garlands), by a preference for curved lines (e.g. the aforementioned porticos and the arched windows of the first story), and by the very ornate decoration of the interior, whose soaring and elaborately-coffered vaults combine with light streaming in from the clerestory windows of the nave and the dome to produce the sort of heavenly effect for which Baroque architecture is known (All sources Britannica). Still, St. Paul’s Cathedral isn’t as flamboyantly Baroque as the churches of Italy or even France. It gains an austere quality from its stark white coloration, which lacks even the irregular, colorful veins of marble, and, though its interior is lavishly decorated, the great height of the ceilings combined with a fairly subdued (for the Baroque period) color palette means that the aesthetic of the building is less “awesome beauty” and more “solemn beauty,” a move which could be seen to anticipate the neoclassicist direction taken by the architects of the eighteenth century. The differences between St. Paul’s and contemporary European cathedrals could be attributed to the unique political situation of England at the time of the building’s construction: the monarchy had just been restored, and the creation of a building like this would have been an excellent chance to demonstrate the power and wealth of Charles II as well as his control over the Church of England. The ostentatious style and grand scale make a good deal of sense when looked at from this perspective. The comparative austerity, meanwhile, likely results from the fact that, unlike Italy, France or Spain, England was a Protestant nation, and the Stuart kings were questionably Protestant at best. Because, like other Protestants, Anglican Christians tended to prefer simple, functional church architecture to the extravagant style favored by Catholics, creating a fully Baroque cathedral replete with visual delights would have created suspicion and anger in a country already wary of their monarch’s beliefs. As such, St. Paul’s Cathedral can be seen both as an excellent example of Baroque architecture and a demonstration of the ways in which, far from being simply functional, architectural styles must be interpreted and altered according to the cultural and political environments in which architects find themselves. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:St_Paul%27s_Cathedral_Nave,_London,_UK_-_Diliff.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:St_Pauls_Cathedral_from_West_adj.JPG "Saint Paul's Cathedral." Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified March 17, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saint-Pauls-Cathedral-London Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource interior: CC-BY-SA 3.0 exterior: CC BY 2.0; free re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/1d49cff491993988c24946e6b849e6a7.jpg 627191fe6f22a23c9501496f0a51b608 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 63.5 cm x 76.5 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Dutch East-Indiaman off Hoorn Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lorenzo a Castro Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource before 1686 Description An account of the resource <p><span style="font-weight:400;">This painting of a Dutch East Indiaman illustrates the prominence of the Dutch Republic in maritime trade throughout the 17th century. Dutch trade interests encompassed a large part of the globe during this time. In the European sphere, the Dutch shipped grain and timber from the Baltic, imported wool and other products from the Mediterranean (Israel 1995, 611), and imported raw metals from Scandinavia and other regions which were then manufactured into munitions such as cannons (Haley 43). Dutch industry flourished from the imports of these raw materials: shipbuilding, textile and linen manufacture, tobacco and sugar processing, and a variety of other industrial trades benefitted from the import and export economy of the Netherlands (Haley 44). European banking, investments, and financial exchanges were centered in Amsterdam as a result of this extensive maritime trade and industry (Haley 41). This trade activity contributed to increasing urbanization in Dutch society, with many rural people moving into the cities to participate in the growing trade economy (Haley 49).</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Outside of Europe, conflicts between the Dutch and Portuguese trade empires allowed the Dutch to profit from sugar, gold, and other natural materials, as well as from slavery, in trade with Africa and Brazil (Blackburn 192). Two trade companies were key to trade in the Netherlands: the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch East India Company (or VOC). The Dutch East India company operated in South Africa, India, China, and Southeast Asia, and dominated the spice trade, while the West India Company operated in the New World and West Africa, and focused on trading sugar (Blackburn 187-188). Dutch trade interests, industry, and financial growth all worked together to make the Dutch Republic an economic powerhouse in the early modern period.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Works Cited:</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Blackburn, Robin, “The Dutch War for Brazil and Africa,” in </span><i><span style="font-weight:400;">The Making of New World Slavery</span></i><span style="font-weight:400;">, 185-215. New York: Verso, 1977.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Haley, K.H.D., </span><i><span style="font-weight:400;">The Dutch in the Seventeenth Century</span></i><span style="font-weight:400;">, 38-64, London: Thames and Hudson, 1972.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Israel, Jonathan, </span><i><span style="font-weight:400;">The Dutch Republic</span></i><span style="font-weight:400;">. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.</span></p> Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Castro,_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This item is in the Public Domain.