8 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/4f910df3a1e1ec313f968b282bcae974.png b797433a9dfc467633a1aa90036e0217 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Graph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image N/A Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slaves Embarked on Voyages by Nation During the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource McLain Sidmore Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource All data from The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use Description An account of the resource No exploration of maritime history in the early modern period would be complete without a look at the largest driver of maritime trade during the later part of this period, the trade in human slaves. The history of African slavery in the Americas began not long after the European discovery of the West Indies. Early Spaniards in the New World attempted to keep native Americans in slavery to work, both in mines and large-scale agricultural ventures, through the encomienda system, however this proved unsustainable given the unprecedented death rates among the natives. Instead the Spaniards (and soon the Portuguese) turned to the use of African laborers to work in the emerging sugar industry in the West Indies and Brazil (Wiesner-Hanks, 260). With the expansion of exploration and colonization by other nations in the Americas, the profitable slave trade exploded with most Western European nations taking part in the expansion of slave trading. The slave trade is often conceptualized in the simplified idea of the ‘triangular trade,’ a trading network that brought European manufactured goods to the West coast of Africa where European merchants exchanged these goods for slaves. These slaves were then carried across the Atlantic on a dangerous voyage that has become known as the infamous ‘Middle Passage’ on the way to the Americas. The final leg of this journey brought raw materials such as sugar or cotton from the new world back to Europe for the production of manufactured goods. Of course, unsurprisingly, this international trading network was much more complicated than this simplified triangle. There was tremendous trade within Europe during this time that was tangentially related to the slave trade. Iron, for instance, which was an important trade item for the English and Dutch in the slave trade, had to be sourced in Sweden or Germany, two areas that did not independently participate in the transatlantic slave trade but affected it through their metal exports (Evans & Rydén, 42). Inter-African trade was also common during this period with slave raiders often trading slaves over large areas, both along the coast, and from interior areas within the continent. Later, with the ascendance of the British colony in North America, and later the United States, the triangular trade began to look more like a square with the growth of industry in the Northeastern U.S. where ships were built, and perhaps more importantly, rum was made from the sugar brought up from the Caribbean before being shipped back across the Atlantic. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/a23164388b7d584b0bbcb1faa1dd55a8.jpg 86af04db21f39d7d03225599c081fb6d Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Louis XIV Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hyacinthe Rigaud Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1702 Description An account of the resource Hyacinthe Rigaud’s “Portrait of Louis XIV” serves as an idyllic artistic illustration of the mechanisms of Absolutism which Louis XIV established in France. The monarch, who was well into his sixties during the time of this portrait, is depicted in the classic style of an Absolutist ruler. His robes are accessorized with gold "Fleur de Lis" crests, symbolic of the French monarchy and nation. A golden sword is slung by his waist, representing his control over the military and the scepter in his right-hand serves as yet another reminder of his power over France, with another "Fleur de Lis" on the bottom edge of it. During his reign, Louis XIV made every effort to create a centralized government with an intricate bureaucracy revolving around himself. He had moved the royal palace from within Paris to just outside of it, at Versailles. The palace housed many of the bureaucrats who served him as well as institutions for the arts, such as an opera. Louis XIV wanted all of his constituents to understand that all matters involving the state were centralized around him, including the government, the military, and patronage of the arts. Absolutism was a widely developing concept in Europe by this time. Many distinct features of Absolutism had been outlined and upheld in Thomas Hobbes’s “Leviathan,” in which Hobbes ultimately theorized that the best form of government is one which is unified and substantially centralized around an Absolute monarch. Louis XIV nearly perfectly represents the type of ruler which Hobbes would argue: strengthens the state and the well-being of the nation through Absolutism. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Musée du Louvre via Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hyacinthe_Rigaud_-_Louis_XIV,_roi_de_France_(1638-1715)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/9be8ba5a71e1ffca2630e38d146d4c95.jpg a66aa6c70defc14e49ae4582a29f79ad Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Two Treatises of Government Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John Locke Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1690 Description An account of the resource In John Locke’s “Two Treatises of Government,” he breaks-down and refutes the argument of rival political philosopher Robert Filmer and establishes the framework for contract theory in civil society and the government. Specifically, in his second treatise, Locke defines the purpose of government as a protection for the “property” of individuals in civil society. He outlines the history of the development of government and illustrates how it revolved completely around property. Property is defined as “life, liberty, and the estate,” meaning it includes the individual self-determination of all synonyms. These could be seen as early elements of Liberalism, where government is seen as a vehicle for the protection of self-determination. In Liberalism, the government’s role in daily life is limited to minimize its interference in the lives of its citizens. The main role of the government is to ensure that all of its citizens have access to self-determination and individualism. In Locke’s treatise, the protection of property serves the same function as the protection of the individual will in Liberalism. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/990de832bf633f49d08808e2272cd550.jpeg b5f8c139b2205d40bb1a653485712b16 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource German Thaler Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource [Unknown] Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Zach Irvin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1761 Description An account of the resource The thaler, a coin widely used throughout Europe since the 16th century, was considered by many to be a standard currency of the era. This particular silver coin, however, was minted in 1761 in northern Germany near the end of its popularity. The death of the thaler was indicative of the much broader economic developments throughout the 18th century. The German economy experienced especially dramatic changes throughout the 17th and 18th century. The aftermath of the Thirty Years War left the economy uniquely volatile to the wider disruptions felt throughout Europe in this "Age of Crisis". Commerce throughout this period became quite stagnant as a result of unstable price signals and depleted resources. These failures of price signals and subsequent inflation required an entirely new approach to monetary policy. The role of the state, therefore, became a central consideration of this era. Perhaps the war was most felt in the German countryside where "a survey in the abbey of Ottobeuren found only 133 horses and 181 cattle in 1636, compared to 2,094 and 6,607 respectively 16 years earlier" (Wilson, 801). The state's role, therefore, was in part a response to the destruction experienced by rural communities and the demands of the struggling German farmer. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived German Thaler, 1761. Vänersborgs Museum. <a href="https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/916106/vbg_object_VM25362.html?q=German+Thaler">https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/916106/vbg_object_VM25362.html?q=German+Thaler</a><br /><br />Wilson, Peter H. Europe's Tragedy: A New History of the Thirty Years War. Penguin UK, 2009. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Use CC BY https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/c0ccb87889cff4395631f6aa637f74c7.png a5d0f5214cac3020732d74c0bd8e8bae Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Prostheses by Ambroise Paré Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ambroise Paré Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Jack Williams Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1579 Description An account of the resource In 1579 the French surgeon Ambroise Paré published a series of drawings considered by many to be the first true attempts at creating functional prosthetic limbs. While prosthetics in some forms had existed for centuries before Paré’s work, they were very often crude and poorly formed, hooks for arms and pegs in place of legs (Hernigou). Paré however was the first to combine both mechanical engineering with a study of medicine and create a fairly functional, for the time, prosthetic hand. As the royal surgeon to four French kings Paré created innovative medical procedures at a time of difficult political situations for France and many other growing nation states throughout Europe. Like many others in the French government Paré benefited from a powerful absolutist monarch in France, he was given a large level of control over his own research and writings. His other works related to surgery, when and where it was useful, as well as his arguments against performing unnecessary procedures, such as fighting against the previous requirement of castration in order to cure hernias (Hernigou). In many ways Paré is a classic example of the nobles which surrounded the French monarch, both innovative and yet deeply tied to his government. He managed to stay in favor between many monarchs and nearly 30 years, but leveraged his position to perform research, and investigate real battlefield combat that may have been otherwise unattainable to him in any other position (Hernigou). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200579/bgj9rr8s.html Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource CC BY https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e94f8830de3d2670048fd1a63330ba49.jpg 50553dc89458fb813678c28169278abe Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Two Treatises of Government Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John Locke Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Changlan Wang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1690 Description An account of the resource In Chapter 6 of Locke’s Two Treatises of Government about paternal power, he mentioned that the phrase “paternal power” seems to “place the power of parents over their children wholly in the father, as though the mother had no share in it; whereas reason and revelation both tell us that she has an equal title” (Locke, 304). He also mentioned that the one of the reasons why people would prefer “paternal” instead of “parental” is because “the monarchy wouldn’t be well supported if the very name showed that the fundamental authority from which they want to derive their government by only a single person belonged not to one person but to two” (Locke, 304). The word choice of “paternal” suggests a certain degree of absolute dominion that is only possible when one man is in power. Without any assistance or share of authority, the monarch, usually male, could yield his influence and leadership on the subordinate hierarchical orders. The association between paternal power and the political power of a monarch was built when using the word “paternal” instead of parental. By suggesting that there were fundamental differences between paternal and parental power, Locke was implying that in his view of the government, paternal power and political power should be separated, and could be achieved by including the mother’s responsibility of bringing up a child. He considered parental power more like a responsibility that would disappear when the children could think with reason, while submitting oneself to a political power is the voluntary will of an individual (Locke, 316). Locke’s argument, on a radical perspective, could be considered as the dissolution of the association between power and male identity. In the parental process, when women share the responsibility with men, they also share the power and influence that they have on their children with men, who was originally considered to have the sheer dominance on children, or a monarchical nation. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government, 1690. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Locke Power https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/fda3ac76f38c70cf59c70889083fa3cf.jpg 1aa144b1d158fa1c2cad0375972e884f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Empress Maria Theresia of Austria Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Martin van Meytens Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Changlan Wang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1759 Description An account of the resource During the era of constantly changing political power and international affair, the Austrian Habsburg faced a succession problem after the death of Charles VI who had no sons. The succession of a women emperor in Europe was generally rare during the early modern period. Although the imperial law, which was based on the Salic Law, officially prohibited the emperorship passing to a woman, Charles managed to issue a Pragmatic Sanction, allowing his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, to inherit (Weisner-hanks, 351). However, despite the fact that a number of states within the Empire and most other European countries agreed on the imperial decree, several breached their promises, attacked Austria and tried to claim parts of the territory of Maria Theresa (Weisner-hanks, 351). The social norm of having a male emperor and the conception that woman is weak or incapable of bearing the responsibility of ruling a country put Maria into a vulnerable and dangerous situation. The view of women in the political world is indispensable from the social hierarchical order that women was positioned into. For example, French lawyer sought to exclude both women and heirs who had inherited through the female line during a succession controversy (Weisner-hanks, 351). Moreover, the concept of women being foundationally different and weaker than men is also correlated with humoralism, which considered feminine complexion as fundamentally weaker (Earle, 41). Thus, women should be treated differently, particularly when they were in power, because of the inherent weakness they had. The contrasting reaction of the initial agreement and later breaking their promises of the European countries once Charles VI died make it even more obvious that the power of women was considered less authoritative compared to men’s. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Meytens, Martin van. Empress Maria Theresia of Austria. 1759. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Kaiserin_Maria_Theresia_%28HRR%29.jpg. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Prominent Women https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/4c6d11134d3358427b8ee1e523f91b3b.JPG dc295bc446507f30f23d8ce364f26ba7 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photo Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 10,800 × 2,332 pixels Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Universidad de Salamanca Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Juan Carlos Cera Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Teddy Wolfe Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2 September 2014, 18:48:33 Description An account of the resource The University of Salamanca was founded in 1218, and is the oldest University in Spain. The university peaked in 1584, when it had nearly 7,000 students, before declining starting by the end of the 16th century until the early 19th century (Britannica). One of its students was Benito Feijóo, who targeted it and many other Spanish institutions for their lack of effective learning in a 1745 letter titled Cartas eruditas y curiosas (Barker, 17). In the letter, Benito called professors “persistently ignorant” with no regard for new philosophy (Cowans, 212). These teachers clung to the Bible over everything else, perhaps out of self-interest and the fact that the Inquisition encouraged them to not go against Catholicism. This limited understanding of modern ideas at the University of Salamanca was most likely a cause of its decline, as the Inquisition blocked the acquisition of certain books so that new ideas were harder to come by (Cowans, 197). Feijóo also believed this backwardness was in part rooted in Spanish pride, as they believed in their own superiority over philosophers from other European nations. Perhaps Spanish attempts at conquest throughout the New and Old World had generated this, as the citizens sought to refute others in their quest for domination. Thus, Feijóo’s criticism may extend to Spanish policy as well. In summary, the University’s decline parallels Spain’s decline, and how its pride and Inquisition limited the acquisition of new ideas at great cost. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Cera, Juan Carlos. Español: Edificio de La Universidad de Salamanca, La Universidad Más Antigua de España. September 2, 2014. Own work. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Universidad_de_Salamanca_-_University_of_Salamanca.JPG. “University of Salamanca | University, Salamanca, Spain.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed October 28, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Salamanca. Joanna M Barker, "Benito Jerónimo Feijoo and the Defence Of Women." In In Defence of Women, 17. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Modern Humanities Research Association, 2018. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv4ncnzd.4. Benito Feijóo, “Causes of Spain’s Backwardness (1745)” in Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History, ed. Jon Cowans, (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 212 “Laws of the Habsburg Monarchy” in Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History, ed. Jon Cowans, (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 197 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource CC-BY-SA-3.0-ES Debate Education Reform spain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/89334af2781851dc243d7855b7e3fcbd.jpeg 3177eb4af6b8537d5ea3d671f745512d Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Adam Smith Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cassidy Bins Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1776 Description An account of the resource Adam Smith’s Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, was an important milestone in the development of capitalism in early modern Europe. His publication advocated for free trade, open markets, and competition, which he argued were essential for a country’s economy to flourish (Wiesner-Hanks, 203). Beginning in the seventeenth century, England adopted “new crops and crop rotation schedules, altered patterns of landownership, selective breeding of stock and plants, and increases in the amount of land under cultivation” (Wiesner-Hanks, 456). As a result, its agricultural yield was higher and farming more efficient. Similar efficiency was also present in the Netherlands, where urbanization, as well as technological and agricultural changes, were ramping up (Wiesner-Hanks, 457). Economic efficiency did not increase in every country, but England and the Netherlands were leaders in increased output and utilization of resources. England’s expanding economy also reflected Adam Smith’s idea of specialization, in which certain groups of society made certain products or provided certain services for sale (Urban Achievement). Thus, Smith’s views represent a move away from subsistence farming to an increasingly specialized and interdependent economy. Capitalist ideas took root in America as well as in England. The sugar trade, in which England took part, ferried slaves across the Atlantic as a source of cheap labor; landowners in the New World exploited slave labor and the sugar plantations as demand for sugar rose in Europe, particularly in England (Moore). As trade became increasingly globalized, so did Smith’s free-market ideas. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Photo: Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. University of Edinburgh. Jason W. Moore, “Sugar and the Expansion of the Early Modern World-Economy,” Review, Research Foundation of State University of New York, 2000. Urban Achievement in Early Modern Europe, ed. Patrick O’Brien. Cambridge University Press, 2001. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe: 1450-1789. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free re-use (CC BY 3.0). https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/2069767cba843ec28da8147d45d8fec6.jpg c7e58d9bc600e8976946dfa5156d68d1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Eggenberg Palace Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Architect: Giovanni Pietro de Pomis Photo: Hiltibold Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Maddie Gartland Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Completed 1635 Photo: 2015 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schloss_Eggenberg_--_Eggenberg_Palace_(21653950146).jpg Lippman, Wolfgang. "Architecture at the Time of the Thirty Years' War: Churches and Castles in the German-Speaking Countries." 1998. http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/3347/1/Lippmann_Architecture_in_the_time_of_the_Thirty_Years_War_1998.pdf "Schloss Eggenberg." Universalmuseum Joanneum. Accessed October 26, 2018. https://www.museum-joanneum.at/en/palace-and-gardens-schloss-eggenberg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Creative Commons 2.0, free re-use Description An account of the resource The Eggenberg Palace, begun in 1625 by Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, is a very interesting exhibition of the way one man's life was changed by political power in the context of the Thirty Years' War. Before Hans' alterations, this was a rather modest medieval family residence, which was incorporated in the much newer and more grandiose palace that stands today. The design was inspired by El Escorial in Spain (Lippman), and echoes its strict symmetry: Eggenberg Palace is rectangular, almost fortress-like, with stout towers at each corner and a central chapel as well. Within the palace is a small and square courtyard, onto which face three floors of open hallways with clerestory arches. The state rooms inside are tiled with black and white marble and feature a curved ceiling decorated by beautiful paintings laid in opulent stucco surrounds; the culmination of these rooms is the Planetary Room, in which a cycle of astrology-themed paintings line the walls ("Schloss..."). Further paintings display mythological, ancient, biblical, and modern history. Many of the more ostentatious aspects of the decor were actually added by later Eggenbergs, but Hans himself did not shy away from ornamentation. Eggenberg Palace is very much a product of its owner. It had always been the family estate, and the old medieval residence had sufficed, until Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg became an Imperial prince and later Governor of Inner Austria. Coming from a relatively simple Protestant upbringing, Hans converted to Catholicism in order to serve at court and became one of Ferdinand II's closest confidantes, vastly increasing his power and prestige in the process ("Schloss..."). With his new status as a European statesman, the rather modest old estate would need to be transformed into a lavish princely one, representative of his new standing––hence the drive to expand and create a true palace (Lippman). The entirety of the construction took place during the Thirty Years' War, a marked difference from most construction projects during the period, which were largely interrupted by the war. Hans was part of a minority that personally benefitted from the events of the war, as his ascension to power attests; this new power in the context of a wartorn Germany allowed him the capacity to undertake and complete such an expensive and impressive project during a period of such instability. Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg and his castle thus exemplify the importance of individual power in the context of the Thirty Years' War. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/1d49cff491993988c24946e6b849e6a7.jpg 627191fe6f22a23c9501496f0a51b608 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 63.5 cm x 76.5 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Dutch East-Indiaman off Hoorn Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lorenzo a Castro Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource before 1686 Description An account of the resource <p><span style="font-weight:400;">This painting of a Dutch East Indiaman illustrates the prominence of the Dutch Republic in maritime trade throughout the 17th century. Dutch trade interests encompassed a large part of the globe during this time. In the European sphere, the Dutch shipped grain and timber from the Baltic, imported wool and other products from the Mediterranean (Israel 1995, 611), and imported raw metals from Scandinavia and other regions which were then manufactured into munitions such as cannons (Haley 43). Dutch industry flourished from the imports of these raw materials: shipbuilding, textile and linen manufacture, tobacco and sugar processing, and a variety of other industrial trades benefitted from the import and export economy of the Netherlands (Haley 44). European banking, investments, and financial exchanges were centered in Amsterdam as a result of this extensive maritime trade and industry (Haley 41). This trade activity contributed to increasing urbanization in Dutch society, with many rural people moving into the cities to participate in the growing trade economy (Haley 49).</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Outside of Europe, conflicts between the Dutch and Portuguese trade empires allowed the Dutch to profit from sugar, gold, and other natural materials, as well as from slavery, in trade with Africa and Brazil (Blackburn 192). Two trade companies were key to trade in the Netherlands: the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch East India Company (or VOC). The Dutch East India company operated in South Africa, India, China, and Southeast Asia, and dominated the spice trade, while the West India Company operated in the New World and West Africa, and focused on trading sugar (Blackburn 187-188). Dutch trade interests, industry, and financial growth all worked together to make the Dutch Republic an economic powerhouse in the early modern period.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Works Cited:</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Blackburn, Robin, “The Dutch War for Brazil and Africa,” in </span><i><span style="font-weight:400;">The Making of New World Slavery</span></i><span style="font-weight:400;">, 185-215. New York: Verso, 1977.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Haley, K.H.D., </span><i><span style="font-weight:400;">The Dutch in the Seventeenth Century</span></i><span style="font-weight:400;">, 38-64, London: Thames and Hudson, 1972.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight:400;">Israel, Jonathan, </span><i><span style="font-weight:400;">The Dutch Republic</span></i><span style="font-weight:400;">. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.</span></p> Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Castro,_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This item is in the Public Domain. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/6c4a93ed6a762d2b5c4c625673b0ac5e.JPG d8b4e554c390c00d470a000f168fa7b7 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/bbb91137611e777133388fc015c4af18.jpg e0754d9eef6cfb938a77ef2476f38e39 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data interior: photograph exterior: photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image interior: 6000 x 5230 exterior: 2447 x 2423 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. Paul's Cathedral, London Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Interior view: David Illif Exterior view: Steve Cadman Architect: Christopher Wren Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Brendan Glenn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Completed 1710 Description An account of the resource St. Paul’s Cathedral in London is a magnificent building, a titanic Latin cross of ornately-carved white limestone capped by a lead dome which soars 280 feet (not counting its lantern or its cross) over the streets of London (Britannica). The Baroque cathedral combines a Continental architectural sensibility with a distinctly English attitude to architecture, religion, and even secular power. St. Paul’s Cathedral is built on the site of several older buildings, mostly older cathedrals of St. Paul but also including, supposedly, a Roman temple to the goddess Diana. This latest iteration of the structure was planned and built under the supervision of the architect Christopher Wren after the previous St. Paul’s Cathedral, which had been badly damaged after the troops of Lord Protector of England James Cromwell had used it as a barracks, burnt down during the 1666 Great Fire of London. Wren was commissioned by the English government, which had itself recently been restored from Cromwell’s Protectorate to a monarchy ruled by Charles II, to create a new cathedral to replace the one which had been destroyed, and he did so with aplomb. Aside from the aforementioned massive dome (which is actually composed of three layers: the outer lead dome, an inner masonry dome adorned with frescoes, and a hidden brick cone in between the two to provide structural support), the cathedral boasts a Greco-Roman-style facade, with a two-story Corinthian colonnade and pediment. The Corinthian columns continue around the exterior of the cathedral, sometimes as full columns on the semicircular porticos which open from the secondary facades at the ends of the transept and sometimes as pilasters which frame the building’s windows in sets of two. The tholus (circular colonnade) beneath the cathedral’s dome and the pediments over the second-story windows also refer to classical architecture. The building is marked as baroque, however, by the ornate designs which cover it (e.g. relief carvings of garlands), by a preference for curved lines (e.g. the aforementioned porticos and the arched windows of the first story), and by the very ornate decoration of the interior, whose soaring and elaborately-coffered vaults combine with light streaming in from the clerestory windows of the nave and the dome to produce the sort of heavenly effect for which Baroque architecture is known (All sources Britannica). Still, St. Paul’s Cathedral isn’t as flamboyantly Baroque as the churches of Italy or even France. It gains an austere quality from its stark white coloration, which lacks even the irregular, colorful veins of marble, and, though its interior is lavishly decorated, the great height of the ceilings combined with a fairly subdued (for the Baroque period) color palette means that the aesthetic of the building is less “awesome beauty” and more “solemn beauty,” a move which could be seen to anticipate the neoclassicist direction taken by the architects of the eighteenth century. The differences between St. Paul’s and contemporary European cathedrals could be attributed to the unique political situation of England at the time of the building’s construction: the monarchy had just been restored, and the creation of a building like this would have been an excellent chance to demonstrate the power and wealth of Charles II as well as his control over the Church of England. The ostentatious style and grand scale make a good deal of sense when looked at from this perspective. The comparative austerity, meanwhile, likely results from the fact that, unlike Italy, France or Spain, England was a Protestant nation, and the Stuart kings were questionably Protestant at best. Because, like other Protestants, Anglican Christians tended to prefer simple, functional church architecture to the extravagant style favored by Catholics, creating a fully Baroque cathedral replete with visual delights would have created suspicion and anger in a country already wary of their monarch’s beliefs. As such, St. Paul’s Cathedral can be seen both as an excellent example of Baroque architecture and a demonstration of the ways in which, far from being simply functional, architectural styles must be interpreted and altered according to the cultural and political environments in which architects find themselves. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:St_Paul%27s_Cathedral_Nave,_London,_UK_-_Diliff.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:St_Pauls_Cathedral_from_West_adj.JPG "Saint Paul's Cathedral." Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified March 17, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saint-Pauls-Cathedral-London Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource interior: CC-BY-SA 3.0 exterior: CC BY 2.0; free re-use