5 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/155dccab612e82b4a49b7e465fdbe31c.jpg 857faac67cb85a097a2bd6d1b0e72b01 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Engraving of the Jesuit Theater in the Collège de Clermont Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown (Engraving) Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Benjamin Wightman Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Unknown Description An account of the resource With this image of the Jesuit theater in the Collège de Clermont, we return to one of the oldest established places of education in Europe—the University of Paris. The Collège de Clermont was one of the earliest schools established by the Jesuits, who were incredibly influential in shaping education in Europe. The Jesuits were a rigid and hierarchical Catholic sect that followed the teachings of Ignatius Loyola. They greatly valued education and founded schools across Europe where not just religious, but also scholastic teachings were embraced (Wiesner-Hanks 188). The Jesuits were rigorously trained, and this training was reflected in the effectiveness of their teaching. The Jesuit curriculum heavily promoted “languages and literature—the arts of communication” (Gordon 11). Communication may have been important to the Jesuits because of their large role in converting various peoples to Catholicism, which they did quite successfully in Eastern Europe (Wiesner-Hanks 189). The Collège de Clermont was one such Jesuit school, at which various influential figures studied, including the famous Voltaire. His education in these “arts of communication” is evident, becoming one of the most influential European writers of his time. His relationship with the Jesuits, however, was complicated, and for most of his life the Jesuits and Voltaire regarded each other with absolute animosity. One of Voltaire’s reasons for this was that “his Jesuit teachers had sexually used him when he was a schoolboy” (Gordon 9-10), a claim that reveals one problem in the Jesuit system. Because education was so tied to religion, and the Jesuits were the religious authority in the schools, they were the only authority present—there was no check present to stop them from abusing their students. While education had improved tremendously by this time, it was still powerfully tied to religion, and not always a safe environment for pupils. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Th%C3%A9atre_j%C3%A9suite_au_coll%C3%A8ge_de_Clermont.JPG https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/6541195885a37321fc9788de2b2cae60.jpg b382edb8e3fd9b15756e9e5a0da21db5 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Engraving of the Sorbonne Description An account of the resource This image is of the Sorbonne, a famous building constructed in 1257 as part of the University of Paris. The university was founded in the latter half of the 12th century, one of the first such institutions to be established in Europe (“University of Paris”). The powerful connection between education and the church (hyperlink to previous page!) remained in many ways, an explicit example being that the members of universities were technically considered clergy (Wiesner-Hanks 35). These universities were attended by the elite and cultivated a culture of scholars who could communicate and share ideas with others around the world, as they were all educated in Latin. The number of universities grew steadily, from fifteen or twenty in 1300 to more than fifty only two centuries later (Wiesner-Hanks 35). In Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789 Merry Wiesner-Hanks provides a quote from a 1442 petition to establish a university that demonstrates some of the reasons that they flourished in this time (36). The petitioners highlight the amount of influence and fame that a university would bring in from around the world, and that it will not only develop the wit of their own citizens but attract strangers from other lands to share their own knowledge. The curriculum in these universities focused on “law, medicine, theology, and philosophy […] along with a more general curriculum—the ‘liberal arts’” (Wiesner-Hanks 35). As the Renaissance gained momentum, university teachers began to embrace humanistic education, which focused on the literature and history of the Greeks and Romans. Humanistic education and thought would propagate itself, and it did, becoming one of the defining characteristics of the Renaissance (Wiesner-Hanks 37). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown (Engraving) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 17th Century Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Benjamin Wightman Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/f6fc0025d06a172d3893a45b7937e030.jpg 58fc0b7cbd2266223be1c50648034b75 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Epistle Dedicatory Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Francis Bacon Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Malcom Oster Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Early 1600's Description An account of the resource This short text, written by Francis Bacon illustrates a rather important aspect of the Scientific Revolution- that of patronage and the importance of powerful backers in scientific endeavors. While the contents of his discovery is also interesting, what is more intriguing about this text is the fact that he devotes as much time to flattery and enticement as he does to describing what the text is about. The short letter to James I is full of flattery, but also self aggrandisement. In the same breath, Bacon paints both James I and himself as contributing to the “regeneration and restoration of the sciences” (Bacon, 143). In the Early Modern period, the importance of having powerful backers was twofold. Not only did the person being backed likely get funds, but they also had protection should they choose to upset the status quo, as some of Bacon’s contemporaries, like Andreas Vesalius would hint at in their writings. These scientists walked a very fine line between discovery and upsetting the status quo. If they went to far, they would fare no better than Galileo. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Science in Europe, 1500-1800 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/bf88878a114a6843056f962c8fcae5a8.jpg d39843e693056aec2c2d439fc7196c8d Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 313 cm by 239 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Equestrian Portrait of the Count-Duke of Olivares Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Diego Velazquez Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1636 Description An account of the resource Philip IV’s reign in Spain is also marked by attempts to centralize power, as was the trend in other European nations (most notably France behind the leadership of the Cardinal Richelieu). The man most associated with this centralization is Don Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, the king’s longtime advisor. The image above is a rendering of the duke by the famed painter Diego Velázquez. When King Philip, aged 22 at the time, was three years into his reign, Olivares laid out his absolutist ideology in a document directed to the young king titled Instructions on Government (1624). The document explains the different levels of the socioeconomic hierarchy of Spain and gives the king instructions on how to handle its members. For instance, he suggests restricting the grandees, who were noblemen of the highest rank, by preventing them from communicating with other grandees or government ministers (Cowans 154). Olivares also recommended that King Philip create rivalries between grandees and the rest of the aristocracy by “[making] it clear that you esteem some of the titled lords as much as the grandees” (Cowans 155). Olivares also mentions “punishing [the people]…and intimidating them so that they do not get out of control” (Cowans 156). The intention of the Instructions on Government is to remove potential threats from to power and make the entirety of the Spanish state dependent on the king. Olivares sought a strong monarchy that could effectively collect tax revenue and raise a unified army, which was important for the continuation of Olivares’ war-reliant foreign policy designed to make Spain a dominant European power again. To do this, the crown would have to reduce the autonomy of the different provinces of Spain. These reforms caused revolts in Catalonia and Portugal that heavily hindered Spain’s success in European warfare (Bradbury 11). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Count-Duke_of_Olivares.jpg Bradbury, Ian. "OLIVARES." Teaching History, no. 43 (1985): 9-11. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43256344. Olivares, Count-Duke of, “Instructions on Government (1624)” in Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History, ed. Jon Cowans. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/21178e5056a34c1e4865f04db69e90f8.txt 61e21268acd6205a69cf9caf2e109e6f https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/ef3713ea1b0b9b3b7e906ac6978eda3f.jpg c1b2481287e12bef36f2e3a77b73d2ed Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ethics by Benedict de Spinoza Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bendict (Baruch) de Spinoza Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1677 Description An account of the resource A key figure of the early radical Enlightenment was Benedict (or Baruch) Spinoza. After his philosophy alienated him from the Jewish community in Amsterdam to which he was born, Spinoza travelled throughout the Netherlands but avoided voicing his philosophical opinions. Ethics is his most significant work, but was published posthumously (Wiesner-Hanks 381). In Ethics, the early strands of what would later become the Radical Enlightenment can be seen. The following passage from Ethics illustrates a central tenet of Spinoza’s philosophy. (For the full text of Ethics, which is in the Public Domain, see: <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3800">www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3800</a>) PROP. XIV. Besides God no substance can be granted or conceived. Proof.—As God is a being absolutely infinite, of whom no attribute that expresses the essence of substance can be denied (by Def. vi.), and he necessarily exists (by Prop. xi.); if any substance besides God were granted, it would have to be explained by some attribute of God, and thus two substances with the same attribute would exist, which (by Prop. v.) is absurd; therefore, besides God no substance can be granted, or, consequently, be conceived. If it could be conceived, it would necessarily have to be conceived as existent; but this (by the first part of this proof) is absurd. Therefore, besides God no substance can be granted or conceived. Q.E.D. Corollary I.—Clearly, therefore: 1. God is one, that is (by Def. vi.) only one substance can be granted in the universe, and that substance is absolutely infinite, as we have already indicated (in the note to Prop. x.). Corollary II.—It follows: 2. That extension and thought are either attributes of God or (by Ax. i.) accidents (affectiones) of the attributes of God. (Spinoza) This passage illustrates the “Oneness” Spinoza identified in the universe. For Spinoza, the only substance which can exist or be considered in the universe is “God,” a substance which is infinite and makes up all parts of the universe. If any other substance existed, then it would have to be explained through the lens of God, which means it would be part of God. Spinoza also notable includes thought as a “attribute” of God. Spinoza’s wider argument declares (in leading up to the above proposition) that substances cannot create one another, and thus substances are created by themselves and their existences are inherently tied to their purposes, and thus the conception of God was not created by anything external but rather by God himself which verifies his existence (for Spinoza’s own wording to this effect, see the attached text and Proposition VII). Spinoza’s works fall within a radical strain of Enlightenment thought. Jonathan Israel claims Spinoza as the “first major figure of the Radical Enlightenment,” (Israel 2010, 2). Spinoza’s interpretation of God contains elements of pantheism and determinism. If everything is God, the identification of this unifying substance may not actually align with an actual deity and instead just be a perception of “nature” (Wiesner-Hanks 381), a lack of distinction which extends towards atheism; Spinoza’s contemporary critics and associates often placed him in an atheistic light (Israel 2001, 163). According to Israel, the natural consequence of Spinoza’s ideas was a society which was “more democratic, libertarian and egalitarian” (Israel 2010, 2; see also Israel 2001, 259-262). Spinoza’s place in the subsequent Enlightenment discourse was divided. Some thinkers such as Hume declared Spinoza’s view of God as a “hideous hypothesis” (quoted in Israel 2001, 159), while Radical Enlightenment thinkers such as La Mettrie and Diderot invoked Spinoza’s deterministic and materialist ideas (even while both thinkers outwardly criticized and decried the tenets of Spinozism. Israel 2001, 707-713). Situating Spinoza in the Netherlands presents an interesting view of the Enlightenment, which is normally focused on France and England. Alongside native thinkers, the Dutch principles of tolerance and free expression, attracted English and French thinkers to the region when their ideas did not adhere to the expectations of the more powerful English or French states. Figures such as Locke and Descartes wrote and published works in the Netherlands whose publication may have been difficult in their home countries of England and France (Wiesner-Hanks 344). While the French government attempted to censor the radical ideas of Spinoza and others, the freer publications in the Netherlands continued to circulate the texts, and banned writings were smuggled from the Netherlands to France (Israel 2001, 99). In a figure such as Spinoza, the Dutch proved to be in some senses ahead of the curve with the radical ideas they would tolerate for publication and discourse. Works Cited Israel, Jonathan I., Radical Enlightenment, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Israel, Jonathan, A Revolution of the Mind, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E., “Cultural and intellectual life, 1600-1789” In Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789, 366-404. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spinoza_Ethica.jpg http://www.gutenberg.org/files/3800/3800-h/3800-h.htm Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This work is the Public Domain. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e4c09d9abcce4f5d1fd38c53a850fabf.jpg 0a11add5b5690b5d070e5ea5639adf4a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Exsurge Domine Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pope Leo X Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Matthew Walsh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1520 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Bulla Decimi Leonis, contra errores Martini Lutheri et sequacium. (Cum prefatione et glossis Ulrici de Hutten), from Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Original image available <a href="http://digital.onb.ac.at/OnbViewer/viewer.faces?doc=ABO_%2BZ183482404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource No Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Only, original license available <a href="https://rightsstatements.org/page/NoC-NC/1.0/?language=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here.</a> Description An account of the resource Almost three years after Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses set off a religious wildfire, Pope Leo X issued this papal bull, named after the first two words in the Latin text, “Arise, O Lord.” The document lists forty-one purported errors of Luther. Many of them concern the doctrines of purgatory and indulgences, but the bull also defends the Catholic doctrines of the divine institution of the papacy, the morality of burning heretics, and others (Wiesner-Hanks, 168-169). Pope Leo X ordered that all of Luther’s works be burned, and he forbade Catholics from reading or owning any of them. He also ordered Luther to come and recant his heretical beliefs within sixty days, or be excommunicated from the Catholic Church. Luther did not do so, and in response to the bull he issued several new writings denouncing the papacy as the Antichrist (whether the Antichrist label applies to the individual holding the papal office or the institution has been a source of intra-Lutheran dissension since; see for example statements by the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod <a href="https://www.lcms.org/about/beliefs/faqs/lcms-views#pope" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>, and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod <a href="https://wels.net/about-wels/what-we-believe/doctrinal-statements/antichrist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>, which also expound on Luther’s views on the subject). Two months after he received a copy of Exsurge Domine Martin Luther publicly burned it and other church documents. This papal bull shows the inherent spiritual role of the papacy as the center of authority in Catholicism. In relation to the Reformation period specifically it shows the doctrines that came under debate due to Luther’s challenge, and the fierce way in which the Catholic hierarchy responded to the German monk’s criticism. However, the bull ultimately did little if anything to slow down the speed of the Reformation that was sweeping across much of Germany. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/17b5e80b95290254fc4225dd904fd2eb.jpeg a6bad5acbb043020c780b8f213847a72 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 300 cm x 600 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource First Tribute to Columbus Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jose Ganrnelo y Alda Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1892 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/2022704/lod_oai_bibliotecavirtualdefensa_es_40808_ent1.html?q=christopher+columbus Mar-Molinero, Clare. The politics of language in the Spanish-speaking world: from colonization to globalization. Routledge, 2002. Restall, Matthew, Seven Myths of Spanish Conquest. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003. Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de, “Just War in the Indies (ca. 1547)” in Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History, ed. Jon Cowans. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use Description An account of the resource Throughout human history, great discoveries have commonly been made by accident. Despite popular mythology, this principle applies to Christopher Columbus’ initial voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. Although the notion that the Earth was round was not revolutionary at the time, Columbus’ miscalculations regarding the planet’s size led him to believe that Asia was far closer to Europe than it actually is (Restall 7). Instead of perishing as a result of his error, however, Columbus encountered a vast landmass unknown to his contemporaries and full of unidentified inhabitants. The Spaniards who followed Columbus to the New World brought their desires to both convert the native population to Christianity and accrue wealth for themselves and their monarchs. The conquest of the Americas gave Spain access to the natural resources on the continents, people that could be used as workers, and, eventually, profitable trade routes (Mar-Molinero 27). From a religious standpoint, the conquest could be justified since the spread of Christianity would end the “wicked crimes” committed by the indigenous population, which would lead to their salvation (Cowans 62). The Spanish cultural perspective of colonization is demonstrated by the painting First Tribute to Columbus, which depicts the triumphant arrival of the explorer to the New World. In the foreground is Columbus himself, but directly behind him are a towering wooden cross and the flag of Castile and Leon. The prominence of these objects in the painting reflects the interests of Spain with regards to these new lands and peoples. It is also worth noting that this painting was created at the end of the 19th century, right as Spain was entering a crisis of identity due to numerous losses of overseas colonies. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/72d2a2d502f9189905c6e4318397c216.jpg f6fd971625efbedf10f12caff1117787 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Flint gun with battery lock Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1650 Description An account of the resource The development of Pistols, such as the one shown above. Was a significant technological change over the course of the Early Modern Period. Pistols were a sign of political prestige’s, which was how nobles distinguished themselves on the battlefield. It was also a used as a way for the nobility to “both use gunpowder and yet stay above the infantry - figuratively and in actual combat” (Wiesner Hanks 93). Political and military tacticians such as Machiavelli wrote about military strategies before the development of these arms, which would play a significant role in developing new military strategy. This advancement of firearms led to “troops on foot became the heart of early modern armies” (Wiesner Hanks 92). Because of this heavy reliance on infantry soldiers and the advancement of deadlier weapons, wars resulted in heavy casualties and lasted for longer periods of time, which expended more resources. It is because of the advancement of military weapons, that battle deaths began to exceed previous numbers and even reach 1,251,000 deaths in the War of Spanish Succession (Lynn). The advancement of technology during the Scientific Revolution, such a pistoles was a vital part of the early modern period and influenced the desire of technological development. Firearms created a unique political environment, where commanders had to reinvent new tactics, because previous military would not be as effective against Musketeers. In addition to diminished role of cavalry, there was an increase of combat mortality among political leaders, due to the increased effectiveness of the weaponry. This instilled fear in the nobility, which caused many leaders to be reluctant to enter a battle and instead played a more supportive tatican role. Because of their lesser role, “monarchs also hired professional military contractors”, which they employed instead of their citizens (Wiesner Hanks 95). With the development of military technology, political leaders played a diminishing role in engagements of combat. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Rijksmuseum. Flint Gun with Battery Lock. 16550. Flint gun with battery lock, Netherlands. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/f7400452d4df56c1730b001258a5f4f1.jpg a07b07e8728607f4b4cc510c2df892cd Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Florence Cathedral (Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore) Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Brendan Glenn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Begun 1296, dome completed 1434, facade completed 1887 Description An account of the resource The Florence Cathedral, officially called the Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (the Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower) and usually simply referred to as “il Duomo,” or “the Cathedral,” is arguably the Florentine building. It has earned this reputation largely because of its titanic dome, which, aside from being the largest in the world at the time of its construction, also serves as one of the city’s chief landmarks. That dome, built from 1418 to 1434 under the direction of the architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), was placed on top of an earlier Gothic cathedral structure designed by Arnolfo di Cambio (1240-1310), whose construction began in 1296. This combination produces perhaps the most potent symbol of the fledgling Renaissance: the sight of a dome built “based to some degree on Roman domes” like the Pantheon (Wiesner-Hanks, 141) soaring into the sky over an older cathedral formed from groin vaults and pointed Gothic arches. The new culture, here, literally surmounted the old. The novel architectural techniques that would come to prominence in the following years, based on advanced geometry and precise engineering and inspired by classical buildings and Vitruvius’ Architecture, weren’t “direct descendants” (as it were) of Brunelleschi’s design for the Florence Cathedral’s dome; the ingredients for Renaissance architecture were already present by the time construction began. At the same time, however, the massive dome leaves a shadow that is both metaphorically and physically long. It is hard not to see il Duomo as the beginning of a new architectural paradigm, especially given its location at the center of the city where the Renaissance first truly blossomed. Even Vasari, who dismissed the work of Early Renaissance architects, felt compelled to justify this dismissal by saying that the “fineness and excellence” (Vasari, 91) of Brunelleschi’s work on the Florence Cathedral made him an outlier among his contemporaries. The fact that this building is a cathedral is also of note, considering that it’s a perfect example of the involvement of Church money in sponsoring the architectural adventures of the Renaissance. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Photograph: Giuseppe Mondi Architects: Filippo Brunelleschi, Arnolfo di Cambio Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://unsplash.com/photos/Qq1fwSLM0N0 Merry Wiesner-Hanks, Early Modern Europe Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Unsplash License https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/04dd74d1d67d6b98d2dc093a6a27474b.jpg 27510c677125e5b0764ee672a16f0b20 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Engraving Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 17 x 13 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fort Bourtange (Vesting Bourtange) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Matthäus Merian Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Brendan Glenn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource First built 1593, continually expanded until 1742. Engraving is of the fortress in its original state. Description An account of the resource Fort Bourtange (Vesting Bourtange in Dutch) is a textbook example of the “star fort” or “bastion” fortification type which grew to prominence in the later Renaissance. Construction began during the Dutch Revolt in 1580 under the orders of William of Orange, who wanted a fort on the road between the Spanish-held city of Groningen and the German border in order to prevent the Spanish from controlling the only easily-traveled route through what was otherwise marshy country. Due to its (at the time) modern design, which combined the traditional moats and ditches with a series of angular fortifications, Fort Bourtange was able to withstand an attack by Spanish forces soon after its completion in 1593. Over the next several centuries the fort was continually expanded and served as part of the Netherland’s network of border defenses, before it was eventually decommissioned in 1851. In 1960 the village on the site, facing depopulation and economic woes, restored the bastion to its appearance circa 1750 (Fort Bourtange, History of the Fortress). The existence of Fort Bourtange is testament to both the sad necessity of architecture in war as well as peacetime and to the technological advancements which had begun to occur at an accelerating pace during the Renaissance and which were put to deadly effect during the Wars of the Reformation. Due to the adoption and improvement of firearms, both handheld and artillery, in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, military engineers were forced to find ways to counter the new threat posed to their fortifications by the stone-shattering power of cannon as well as waves of shoddily-trained but numerous arquebusiers and, later, musketmen. The solution which Italian engineers developed was the star fort or bastion, a design which replaced the rounded turrets of medieval castles with pointed structures that served two purposes: first, they allowed attackers nowhere to hide from defenders’ fire by eliminating “blind spots,” placing every part of the exterior wall’s base within view of another section of the wall; and second, they forced cannon to be moved between two of the fort’s projections in order to line up a perpendicular shot at the wall, exposing the slow-moving siege engines and their crews to fire from multiple directions. The walls of these forts were also made shorter and thicker in order to further frustrate cannoneers. This new design rapidly spread from Italy to the rest of the continent, and was critical in several conflicts over the next centuries (Britannica, Bastion). Among these were, of course, the Wars of the Reformation, and indeed Fort Bourtange was built as part of the rebellion of the Protestant territories of the Netherlands against their Catholic overlords in Spain (Fort Bourtange, History of the Fortress). Even today, mainland Europe is littered with quaint villages built among old walls on star-shaped islands, the legacy of the many turmoils of the Early Modern period. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bourtange_1657_Merian.jpg Vesting Bourtange, Fortress: History, 2018. https://www.bourtange.nl/bezoekersinformatie/de-vesting Bastion, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/technology/bastion-fortification Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain; free re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/7991c4b760b454675b1470b6efb206f4.jpeg 12272b39df1ad818109e63df74da3dbb Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fotoreproductie van het fresco De school van Athene door Rafaël; The School of Athens Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (Raphael) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1530 - 1582 Description An account of the resource “The School of Athens” is considered by many as one of Raphael’s greatest artistic creations. Raphael was drawing on the rebirth of the analytical questioning of the classics and the works of the “ancient” peoples. In this image, Raphael paints some of the most significant people who contributed to Western thinking including, Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, and many others. Raphael paints Plato and Aristotle close together to signify their different camps of philosophy and to show their divergence in their philosophical beliefs. This painting was created around the time of many political changes such as the shift away from the church and more towards individual rulers. This would have caused many people to look towards the past and would have inspired many of them to write about it. This reexamining of the past would play an important role inspiring political commentators, such as Machiavelli, who argued against ideas presented by Aristotle about the role of ethics in politics (Harrison). It was necessary for a reemergence of “ancient ideas” in to take place to create a catalyst that would initiate an era of new thoughts. “ School of Athens’ was not an isolated painting that conveyed a political messages. Giotto di Bondone, arguably the individual who first developed renaissance techniques of art. This artwork would be used for political means to portray a sense of power from the Vatican and other Italian city states. The statue of David was “commissioned by the Florentine city council as a symbol of the city”, which portrays the significance of art as a political message (Weisner Hanks 154). Art represented a states wealth and security, which was why it was so heavily encouraged by the Italian city-states. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Urbino, Raffaello. The School of Athens. 1530-1582. Rijksmuseum, Netherlands. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/ecb4b29251b11c1bdfed1e8adc437062.jpg 71742ddac6f487d560a87001910b48cf Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Foxe's Book of Martyrs Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Photo: Wellcome Collection https://wellcomecollection.org/works/t4q4gswu Foxe, John. Book of Martyrs. Edited by William Byron Forbush, Christian Classics Ethereal Library, http://www.ccel.org/f/foxe/martyrs/home.html. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe: 1450-1789. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free to use with attribution (CC BY 4.0). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John Foxe Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cassidy Bins Description An account of the resource The image selected is an engraving of two scenes from John Foxe's Book of Martyrs. The book was originally printed via woodcut, a method of printmaking in which blocks of wood were engraved to depict a certain scene, covered with ink, and then pressed to paper. Foxe’s work was universal in the sense that the illustrations, gruesome as they were, allowed for the illiterate to fully comprehend the scope of the violence inflicted upon Protestant martyrs. The book is a response to the brutality of the Protestant Reformation (particularly under Catholic Mary Tudor's reign from 1553-8), as well as an informative and instigative tool for those who took issue with the encroachment of Catholicism upon England (Wiesner-Hanks, 9). So many Protestants were killed during this time that John Foxe began to catalogue their deaths via printmaking. Evidently in favor of the Church of England, Foxe's book remained a fixture of the English Reformation, which sought to divert Roman Catholic authority from the crown. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs exists now, as it did then, as a record of Protestant persecution: it clues readers in to one aspect of the greater religious conflicts of the Reformation years. Moreover, Foxe’s perspective represents that of a learned Protestant (learned in the sense that he studied the classics) moved to action such that he worked to disseminate all that he had witnessed across borders -- not only does he relate stories of violence from England, but the book’s twenty-two chapters cover Germany, the Netherlands, and French Protestants. In essence, Foxe’s Book of Martyrs is a prominent example of art/literature created to convey a specific religious and political message. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1563