5 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/c41757dbb920aac7e390cf833aa8e4e6.jpg 595bb4987aea92e1986fdc050ec47441 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Images of the Plague in Rome, 1656 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Matthew Walsh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource c. 1656 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <em>Episodes in the plague in Rome of 1656. Etching</em>, from Wellcome Collection. Original image <a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/uqzjdac7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free reuse (CC BY 4.0), with full license available <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Description An account of the resource Created sometime around the plague outbreak, this set of engravings show the suffering and response of Roman authorities to the spread of disease through the city in 1656. Rome, like the rest of Italy, underwent steep population and economic decline in the seventeenth century, driven in large part by multiple outbreaks of the plague. Although it proved more resilient than many of the cities of Italy, these scenes make clear the disease wreaked havoc in Rome (Alfani, np). Rome served as the center of the Papal States, the sprawling territory controlled directly by the pope, and the example of plague shows that the papacy, in its earthly role, was forced to confront the economic stagnation and decline that faced the whole of Italy (Hanlon, 208-209). The symbols of Christendom are present throughout the engravings, and although specific characters are difficult to discern, there are surely clerics walking the streets, carrying out their spiritual and sacramental duties. The Bishop of Rome confronted such outbreaks as the head of one branch of Christendom, but he confronted the seventeenth century’s economic and social upheaval not only as a pan-European leader, but as an Italian head of state. If there is any doubt of the Early Modern papacy’s implicit connection to the Italian peninsula, it should be remembered that when the Dutch Adrian VI died in 1523 it would be 455 years until a non-Italian sat on the Chair of Saint Peter. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/082daa85ca3ef9ac12d6526b79f41fd3.jpg 983a1e1fb0eda6311ec0a5bc38cc147b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Clement IX Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gerard Edelinck (1640-1677) Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Matthew Walsh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource c. 1666-1668 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <em>Portret van paus Clemens IX, Gerard Edelinck, 1666 - 1668</em>, from Rijksmuseum. Original image <a href="https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/collectie/RP-P-BI-7480" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain, with full license available <a href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Description An account of the resource The papacy of Clement IX lasted only thirty months, from the summer of 1667 to December 1669. His papacy is primarily remembered if at all for a truce of sorts in the Jansenist controversy, discussed later in this exhibit, but Clement IX was also active in the less spiritual elements of the papal office throughout the Early Modern period, serving as head of state of the Papal States, as well as a leading political ruler in Europe at a time of constant warfare and fighting across the continent. Yet Clement IX is not remembered as a “Warrior Pope” like Julius II of the sixteenth century; his involvement with this century of wars comes as a peacemaker. The War of Devolution between France and Spain (with support from a Triple Alliance of the Dutch Republic, England, and Sweden) started weeks before Guilio Rospigliosi became Clement IX, and a year later the Bishop of Rome was chosen to mediate the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle between the two sides. Voltaire, hardly the papacy’s most enthusiastic cheerleader, noted that the pope served as a figure trusted to bring peace, although he characteristically claimed in the next paragraph the “Court of Rome… left no means untried to gain the honor of being arbitrator… in order to hide its weakness under an appearance of power” (Voltaire, 114). The short reign of Clement IX thus illustrates the papacy’s continued relevance in European political life through the seventeenth century. It further shows the unity the papacy could bring amongst Catholic nations, along with division and schism. Finally, it shows that this authority was hardly predicated on the individual worth or longevity of any other pontiff. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/b9c7144b5586f1ccc7aa9dc5f24793ba.jpg cb37ab534332661cebec64db719efd32 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portret van Jean-Jacques Rousseau Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Jean François Garnerey Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1791 - 1795 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Garnerey, Jean François. Portret Van Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 1791 - 1795. Rijksmuseum, Netherlands. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Description An account of the resource Jean-Jacques Rousseau political theories were constructed off the foundation of Italian political thought. Throughout Rousseau’s historical and political writing, it is clear he is trying to present a favorable view of Machiavellian philosophy and he often tries to reconcile his own thoughts with that of Machiavelli (McKenzie 225). In Rousseau’s Social Contract he clearly references Machiavelli’s The Prince and The Discourses as a way to solve explain the role of lawgiver and how divine inspiration plays an important role (McKenzie 223). This can also be seen in Rousseau’s use of Machiavelli’s fortuna, which he uses “to expound his principles in theory”, because “he was limited in the degree to which he could estimate their practicability” (McKenzie 224). Rousseau was clearly enthralled by Machiavelli’s works, which resulted in them playing such an important in his works during the enlightenment. The Italian influence on Rousseau helped shape his political theories, which helped him develop into such an important enlightenment philosopher. His political idea of “general will” played an important role in the foundation of enlightenment political thought, which would be the crux of the plethora of Revolutions in the late 18th century (Delaney). His ideas also provide a larger context on the understanding of the enlightenment, where “general will” is directly tied to sovereignty, which focuses on the direction of the state should lead to the well being of the citizens, which further aligns itself with enlightenment philosophy (Delaney). https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/0f709923071ee367d0de03f82fbeb336.jpg 67cbe2717e1d2e6a09d51c5b164dd8ee Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 4608 x 3072 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Museo del Prado, Madrid Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Photograph: Emilio J. Rodriguez Pasada Architect: Juan de Villanueva Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Brendan Glenn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Built starting 1785 Description An account of the resource Neoclassical architecture, which looked not to the Renaissance for its inspiration as the preceding baroque and rococo styles had, but instead to the classical world, was Enlightenment philosophy realized as marble and glass. Like their counterparts in the Renaissance, neoclassical architects believed that applying mathematical ratios and ideal geometries when creating their work allowed them to create beauty. The difference between the two groups was that while the ideals of the Renaissance centered around mathematics as inherently beautiful and held that replication of the classical world’s techniques was a means for producing ideal art, neoclassical theory was concerned less with the physical beauty of a structure and more with its symbolic meaning. This is not to say that neoclassical buildings are ugly, but instead that their beauty and their references to classical work were intended to reflect reason, which was held by the Enlightenment-inspired neoclassicists to be the root of all knowledge and virtue. The mathematical purity, clean lines, and stark white materials characteristic of neoclassicism therefore managed to do something that not even the extravagant architects of the baroque period had managed to accomplish: for the first time since the Renaissance, European architecture began to properly shake loose the conventions of the classical world. The design of the Museo del Prado in Madrid, and specifically of its facade looking out onto the Paseo del Prado, is physical evidence for the beginning of this process. This argument may seem a bit confusing. After all, neoclassicism was definitionally classical; leaving aside the fact that “classicism” is in the name of the movement, the style’s clear fondness for columns, white marble, “perfect” mathematical designs, and other hallmarks of classical design indicate that neoclassicism did anything but turn away from the Greco-Roman tradition. The Museo del Prado’s facade would likewise appear to back this reading of neoclassicism up: commissioned by Spain’s King Charles III and built starting in 1785 by the architect Juan de Villanueva, the museum which now houses the world’s largest collection of Spanish art was initially designed as the home for Spain’s national Natural History Cabinet, and it looks the part (Museo del Prado, History of the Museum). On the building’s facade, a portico supported by large columns projects out towards the Paseo del Prado. This portico is topped by a relief carving and set against a wall composed of statue-filled niches beneath second-floor windows that are framed on either side by the columns of an Ionic colonnade. Save the occasional use of red brick, the facade is almost entirely made of white marble, and one could be forgiven for mistaking it at first glance for some misplaced and renovated Roman basilica. Then, however, the discrepancies between the Prado’s style and that of the Romans (or the Renaissance) would start to become noticeable. For one thing, though the columns abutting the second-story windows are Ionic, they are smoothly cylindrical rather than fluted, and the large columns supporting the portico are Tuscan, the simplest of the ancient orders. Moreover, the facade’s pediment is rectangular, not triangular. This is an earth-shattering design choice. It is difficult to explain how irregular a rectangular pediment is from a classicist perspective, except to say that it’s a bit like seeing a Spanish Colonial building whose arches are square, or an American suburban house with a flat roof. In the classical tradition, one simply does not make a pediment rectangular. It might not even be proper to call such features “pediments.” Either way, though, the Prado’s pediment is indeed rectangular, which communicates a key feature of neoclassical architecture: though neoclassicism was inspired by classicism, it was not beholden to it. Villanueva designed the Prado to house a museum, but he also wanted to create a rational building. White marble and clean lines helped to achieve that, but so would replacing the traditional silhouette-interrupting triangular pediment with a flat, rectangular one. That, therefore, is what Villanueva did. If rational design, if the ideals of the Enlightenment, seemed to require that some pieces of classical tradition be abandoned, then that was something neoclassical architects were prepared to do. Not every neoclassical building does this, of course, nor would this change come quickly, but the Prado’s clean, flat, rectilinear design reflects the beginning of a shift away from early modern Europe’s idolization of classical design and towards, arguably, the simple, purely geometric aspirations of Modernism and the advent of the International Style some 200 years after the Prado’s construction. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived History of the Museum, Museo del Prado, 2018. https://www.museodelprado.es/en/museum/history-of-the-museum https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Museo_del_Prado_2016_(25185969599).jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Creative Commons 2.0; free re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/350e0d1eb9eb6c677ababe9d5b49d4fa.jpg cf4c95ccaf1ff0759ea886b71dd784a3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Château de Voltaire à Ferney Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Architects: Voltaire and Jean-Michel Billon Photo: Brucke-Osteuropa Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Maddie Gartland Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Voltaire's rebuild: 1758-1762 Photo: 2012 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_2.JPG "The Castle of Voltaire." Chateau Ferney-Voltaire. Accessed November 15, 2018. http://www.chateau-ferney-voltaire.fr/Explorer/Le-chateau-de-Voltaire Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Creative Commons 1.0, free re-use Description An account of the resource The Chateau Ferney-Voltaire was the home of Voltaire, one of the French Enlightenment's most memorable and illustrious figures, from 1759 until his death in 1778. When Voltaire acquired the property, the 12th century manor house was in ruins, and the surrounding region was a "miserable hamlet" with a very small population ("The Castle..."). Voltaire's presence rejuvenated the area; even after his 1762 reconstruction of the chateau to create a rustic and comfortable house, it underwent construction again in 1765 to expand the space with two wings. Architecturally, the chateau is pretty typical of a French country house of the era, with ornamentation indicative of baroque artistic impulses, large windows to let in natural light, and long rooms to optimize livable space ("The Castle..."). The exterior is stately and impressive, but not ostentatious––considering its meager surroundings, the sheer size of the house would be enough to establish a dominant presence. The property's park was also tended to in Voltaire's revamp. Situated between the Jura Range and the Alps, the gardens were planned so that there were breaks in the foliage where visitors on the terrace could admire the high peaks. There was also a vineyard, an orchard, and a vegetable garden in order to supply Voltaire's table, and everything was situated around some central water features to beautify the park ("The Castle..."). Voltaire thus was able to engineer his estate to suit his purposes. And suit his purposes it did. Voltaire did not decide to move to Ferney randomly; after his quarrel with King Frederick II of Prussia, he had to find a new place to live, and he was banned from his birthplace, Paris. He first moved to Geneva, which he enjoyed for several years before the city's Protestant spirit became oppressive to his school of thought and publications. This disillusionment with Geneva led him to select his new residence in Ferney, on the French side of the Franco-Swiss border––thus in France, but still close to Geneva, a balance between the two, where he could be "independent and free" ("The Castle..."). Here, he could exist between France and Switzerland, without relying on either state, and could be "king at home" ("The Castle..."). The Chateau Ferney was perfect for the renowned enlightened individual the Voltaire was; he wrote some of his best works there, including Candide, and he could freely host whatever other Enlightenment thinkers and peers he desired. He received so many visitors at this residence that the chateau was expanded in 1765 to accommodate the influx ("The Castle..."). Thus, having traveled and lived in a number of places throughout his life and eventually finding all of them ill-suited to his purposes, Voltaire established his chateau at Ferney as the ideal living space for one of the most influential figures of the French Enlightenment. There, he could settle in his own domain and follow the principles presented in Candide: he could cultivate his garden. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/ba52e5dd43fd3b6ce4500a522727b5ed.jpg 863acfc1311a57122deef0d7cfe30a74 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kunstkamera Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Architect: Andreas Schluter and Georg Johann Mattarnovy Photo: Lev Panov Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Maddie Gartland Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Built 1719-1727 Photo: 2012 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0,_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3,_2012.jpg "History of the Kunstkamera." Kunstkamera. Accessed November 15, 2018. http://www.kunstkamera.ru/en/museum/kunst_hist/ Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Creative Commons 3.0, free re-use Description An account of the resource The Kunstkamera is Russia's first museum, established by Peter the Great in St. Petersburg. The edifice was designed in the Petrine baroque style that dominated the constructions of Peter's reign, based on Dutch architectural styles of the era. Constructed on the banks of the river Neva, the museum is very symmetrical and displays classical influence, with two rectangular three-story wings extending on either side from a central tower, which houses an armillary sphere. Originally, a colonnade had been constructed around the tower, but this burned down in 1747 (along with other wooden parts of the building) and was not replaced. The building also housed an anatomical theater during its early years, but this too was destroyed in the 1747 fire ("History of..."). The interior is comprised of vaulted gallery spaces and smaller collection rooms, ideally suited for the purposes of a museum (it is often noted that the Kunstkamera was one of the earliest buildings actually designed to be a museum). There is some evidence of the typical ornamentation of the larger baroque style, but it has been downplayed throughout the last century and is thus not as striking as most other examples of baroque architecture. Peter the Great's influence on the Kunstkamera was notable, as he supposedly chose the location of the museum and had a heavy hand in overseeing its design and construction before his death. This museum was constructed as a part of Peter's westernizing and modernizing impulse, which was also the source of his desire to build St. Petersburg itself. After traveling around much of Europe and learning about the political and social atmospheres of other European states, Peter had felt that Russia was lacking, and he set out to bring his empire up to par. The Kunstkamera's establishment was thus a push in this direction; Peter sought to elevate the Russian scientific and natural knowledge, and he did so by collecting a "cabinet of curiosities" to display ("History of..."). Today, this collection of rarities may appear haphazard and unintelligible, but in reality they were systematically organized and curated. Peter encouraged the research of deformities in "naturalia", and sought to chronicle accidents of nature; he also included in the museum mineralogical collections and herbariums. All of this contributed to Peter's ideal of creating a scientific museum, which would grow and change as scientific knowledge did, constantly developing ("History of..."). In this push for modernization, Peter the Great proved himself an absolutist ruler who subscribed to the Enlightenment impulses of the period, and sought to bring them into his empire. Thus the Kunstkamera, a state museum devoted to the pursuit and display of scientific knowledge, came to fruition as a result of (and subsequently as an example of) Peter's enlightened form of rule. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/87c678b1d0e3fe581b5085c0401d356a.jpg f17f0da8005f1ef540a91b2480b0b655 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dialogos sobre el comercio de trigo Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ferdinando Galiani Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1775 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Galiani, Ferdinando. Dialogos Sobre El Comercio De Trigo. Madrid: Por D. Joachin Ibarra, 1775. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Description An account of the resource Italian economic political theory played an important role during the age of crisis and throughout the enlightenment. Economic theorist Ferdinando Galiani focuses on Value and Interest theory as well as Economic Policy (Ferdinando). He specifically argued that the commodity demand was inversely proportional to the price and compared relative scarcity to diminishing marginal utility (Ferdinando). In addition to Value Theory, he contemplated over the morality of interest loans and eventually came to the conclusion that interest “compensates the lender for the risk entailed in parting with his money” and is therefor legal and moral (Ferdinando). He also argues for a lesser degree of mercantilism protectionist international trade policy regarding specific products (Ferdinando). His view of economic policies during the age of crisis and the rise of the Northern Europe play an instrumental role in understanding economic development during this time period. Historian Paolo Malanima, provides a unique understanding of the age of crisis in Italy with an assessment that the GDP increase, even when wars, plagues, and poor harvests decimated Italy’s population. She even goes as far to mention “specific innovations and examples of growth in Italy in these centuries” during this “so-called crisis” (Malanima 25). Other historians such as Gregory Handlon argue on the opposite side of the spectrum. He claims that due to the shift to the Atlantic, plagues, poor crop yields, and war all contributed the Italy’s collapse. Ferdinando in the midst of this debate, would recognizes the agriculture and manufacturing problems facing Italy. From a political view, these economic hardships, would prevent the Italian states form unifying and growing strong enough to establish themselves as one of the leading colonizers during the age of exploration. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/a5b0c69fd0bba6e8ef4a0a876e5feeac.pdf 8006fb4733b38f64ac02e4f3c7ecdb96 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Introduction to the Exhibit about Women and Gender in the Early Modern Europe Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Changlan Wang Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Changlan Wang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/25555af35c4f8aef41a4eafcb85f0772.JPG 8fde51c60acd52f9768f0790e3eaa218 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Coffeehouses during the Enlightenment Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kaan Taskintuna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 17th Century Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Interior_of_a_London_Coffee-house,_17th_century.JPG Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Description An account of the resource The painting is of a London coffeehouse during the Enlightenment in the late 17th century. England was famous for its coffeehouses during the time. These places were public spheres where men (women were excluded) would exchange ideas and join discussions. Many historians regard the English coffee houses during the 17th and 18th centuries as the most important Enlightened public sphere in England, One could enter the coffeehouse with a penny, get their cup off coffee, and become part of that day's intellectual discussions. A penny would also grant the patrons access to newspapers. In fact, coffeehouses in Oxford earned a name for becoming "penny universities". They offered an alternate way of learning and passing on information that was different from the traditional classroom or court education. What made coffeehouses special and a symbol of the Age of Enlightenment was the fact that the coffee-house was not limited to a specific socio-economic or social class. They were open for everyone from a variety of classes to participate in and become engaged in the conversation. The price of coffee, a penny, brought people together and facilitated conversation. People could come to coffee houses and bring their diverse backgrounds and ideas with them to engage in debates. With the free and unrestricted flow of ideas in coffeehouses, rational discourse was possible (Calhoun). The coffeehouses played a significant role in the formation of the Enlightenment legacies as they are known today. Perhaps some of the most important ones that coffeehouses contributed to was to think freely, rationally, and openly. Historiographical debate: Historians have had varying opinions on the social significance of coffeehouses on the intellectual development of England (Calhoun). Initially, they were interpreted (under the Whig school of thought) as a catalyst in England's march towards a constitutional monarchy. These views were expressed during the times coffeehouses were in their golden age. However, Cowan, in 2005 argues that "the acceptance of coffee drinking was not a foregone conclusion but instead became socially legitimate through the new virtuoso culture of curiosity and an increasingly commercial world" (Calhoun 78). According to Calhoun, Cowan's interpretation does not get stuck on the Whig ideology and tries to look at the coffeehouse from a more objective standpoint. References: Calhoun, Bonnie. "Shaping the Public Sphere: English Coffeehouses and French Salons and the Age of the Enlightenment." Colgate Academic Review 3 (June 29, 2012): 75-99. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/12996978a7dca2a85ac8b72819c83ae3.jpg a16c5bfd1d41e1640197df38a5a08482 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 267 cm by 293 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Wedding Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Francisco Goya Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Between 1791 and 1792 Description An account of the resource Philosopher Immanuel Kant defined the Enlightenment, an 18th century intellectual movement, as “man’s emergence from his self-imposed…inability to use…understanding without another’s guidance” (Jacob 203). Kant argues that there are two ways to use Enlightened reasoning: public use and private use. The former, which is the public expression of one’s view, is acceptable. Private use of reasoning, which occurs when one questions their occupation or obligation to society (such as upholding the law or paying taxes) to the point of disobedience, should be restricted according to Kant (Jacob 205). A good example of someone who adhered to Kant’s view on Enlightenment is the Spanish painter Francisco Goya. Goya eventually became a royal painter, but his first employment at the court, beginning in 1775, was to paint sketches for royal tapestries. The process of creating tapestries eliminated the detailed side of sketches, something Goya was able to exploit. He began adding subtle social criticisms to his work while producing paintings that would still lead to perfectly acceptable and uncontroversial tapestries. In a sense, Goya was communicating his condemnations of society without allowing his perspectives to influence the final product. The painting pictured above, titled The Wedding, is one such instance of Goya “voicing” his critiques. In it, Goya depicts a seemingly merry scene of a bride and husband exiting a church following their wedding. Closer examination, however, reveals the tragedy of the whole situation. The bride, who is young and beautiful, stands in stark contrast to the husband, who is older and ugly (which Goya uses to convey his immorality). Behind them, the father of the bride, dressed in green, finalizes his daughter’s sale to the husband by giving the local priest his share of the money. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Francisco_de_Goya_y_Lucientes_-_The_Wedding_-_WGA10010.jpg Jacob, Margaret C. The Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, Macmillan Learning, 2017. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/5aa7984b08eed01191536dd9c955c699.jpeg 7ca4c7ef19e77c4344686f54c1985e64 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portret van John Locke Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource François Morellon La Cave Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kneller, Gottfried Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1734 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Morellon La Cave, François. Portret Van John Locke. 1734. Rijksmuseum, Netherlands. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Description An account of the resource John Locke is also heavily influenced by Machiavelli even though it is less apparent on the surface. Locke states in the Second Treatise that that have to be rules the guide and limit the power of a ruler. This is based off Machiavelli’s political theory that requires limitations to be set on a ruler, because he recognizes the problems of an unchecked ruler (Feasel). Locke then builds off this idea of checks on a ruler and develops his checks and balances system (Feasel). In addition to this idea of checks on the ruling authority or executive branch, Locke builds off Machiavelli’s ideas about private property. Machiavelli recognizes the need of private property and even goes as far to say, “You become hateful ... when you prey on the possessions and the women of your subjects. You should leave both alone.", which emphasises his understanding of the dangers of a leader who steals from the populace (Machiavelli 101). Locke continues off this idea by arguing that states do not have the right to take away private property with equal reimbursement. Locke’s political thoughts drastically changed the landscape of Europe, which helped increase the privatization trend and urban development throughout Europe. However Locke also uses “property “to mean “life, liberty, and estate”, which he trying to reinforce the idea that an individual has the right to freedom and that the government can’t take that away the individuals rights (Wiesner Hanks 383). This was a revolutionary idea, which provided the foundation of the American and French revolutions. These political thoughts further helped spread other ideas in the enlightenment about freedom. The basis of Machiavelli’s political thought was the basis of the enlightenment and helped set about this new wave of ideas and further developed Europe. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/14f0c2e7da7567901e876588e1bbba31.jpg 958636b7373cc35dc964c15758e6ce15 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Collège des Quatre-Nations (College of the Four Nations) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Louis Le Vau Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kaan Taskintuna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1662-1684 Description An account of the resource Collège des Quatre-Nations, was one of the colleges of the University of Paris. The building itself was built with baroque influences by Louis Le Vau (1612-1670). The completion of the college, its construction, and its opening in 1688 all happened during Louis XIV's reign (1643-1715). Le Vau proposed to the executors of the estate that the college be placed on the left bank of the Seine River so that Louis XIV would have a clear view of it from his apartments ("Paris"). The starting and ending dates of the Enlightenment is generally considered to be late 17th century and early 19th century, or rather an "extended 18th century". The college was built around the times that the Enlightenment began in Western Europe. In 1666, King Louis XIV had founded the learned society he named the French Academy of Sciences. The man who suggested the foundation of this society to Louis XIV was Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the same man who was one of the executors of the College ("Academy..."). The French Royal Academy of Sciences was one of many of the learned societies/acadèmies that started to emerge at the time. The ever-growing participation in these academies, not only the Sciences, was a symbol of the emphasis on reason, individualism, and skepticism. In 1805, the Collège des Quatre-Nations was given to the Institut de France which had five academies (Humanities, Sciences, Fine Arts, Architecture, and Political Sciences) under its name. Institut de France still runs the building and is the site is also a museum. References: "Academy of Sciences: French Organization." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/. "Paris." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/03_Institut_de_France.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic (CC BY-SA 2.0)