3 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/350e0d1eb9eb6c677ababe9d5b49d4fa.jpg cf4c95ccaf1ff0759ea886b71dd784a3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Château de Voltaire à Ferney Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Architects: Voltaire and Jean-Michel Billon Photo: Brucke-Osteuropa Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Maddie Gartland Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Voltaire's rebuild: 1758-1762 Photo: 2012 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Voltaire_%C3%A0_Ferney_2.JPG "The Castle of Voltaire." Chateau Ferney-Voltaire. Accessed November 15, 2018. http://www.chateau-ferney-voltaire.fr/Explorer/Le-chateau-de-Voltaire Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Creative Commons 1.0, free re-use Description An account of the resource The Chateau Ferney-Voltaire was the home of Voltaire, one of the French Enlightenment's most memorable and illustrious figures, from 1759 until his death in 1778. When Voltaire acquired the property, the 12th century manor house was in ruins, and the surrounding region was a "miserable hamlet" with a very small population ("The Castle..."). Voltaire's presence rejuvenated the area; even after his 1762 reconstruction of the chateau to create a rustic and comfortable house, it underwent construction again in 1765 to expand the space with two wings. Architecturally, the chateau is pretty typical of a French country house of the era, with ornamentation indicative of baroque artistic impulses, large windows to let in natural light, and long rooms to optimize livable space ("The Castle..."). The exterior is stately and impressive, but not ostentatious––considering its meager surroundings, the sheer size of the house would be enough to establish a dominant presence. The property's park was also tended to in Voltaire's revamp. Situated between the Jura Range and the Alps, the gardens were planned so that there were breaks in the foliage where visitors on the terrace could admire the high peaks. There was also a vineyard, an orchard, and a vegetable garden in order to supply Voltaire's table, and everything was situated around some central water features to beautify the park ("The Castle..."). Voltaire thus was able to engineer his estate to suit his purposes. And suit his purposes it did. Voltaire did not decide to move to Ferney randomly; after his quarrel with King Frederick II of Prussia, he had to find a new place to live, and he was banned from his birthplace, Paris. He first moved to Geneva, which he enjoyed for several years before the city's Protestant spirit became oppressive to his school of thought and publications. This disillusionment with Geneva led him to select his new residence in Ferney, on the French side of the Franco-Swiss border––thus in France, but still close to Geneva, a balance between the two, where he could be "independent and free" ("The Castle..."). Here, he could exist between France and Switzerland, without relying on either state, and could be "king at home" ("The Castle..."). The Chateau Ferney was perfect for the renowned enlightened individual the Voltaire was; he wrote some of his best works there, including Candide, and he could freely host whatever other Enlightenment thinkers and peers he desired. He received so many visitors at this residence that the chateau was expanded in 1765 to accommodate the influx ("The Castle..."). Thus, having traveled and lived in a number of places throughout his life and eventually finding all of them ill-suited to his purposes, Voltaire established his chateau at Ferney as the ideal living space for one of the most influential figures of the French Enlightenment. There, he could settle in his own domain and follow the principles presented in Candide: he could cultivate his garden. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/cf18f770954288934dda86a0a5d4ba0d.jpg 96f5e168b3a601587db3b3eaca0e38c0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cicero Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Moses Jehng Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Cicero (106-43 BC) Bust of Cicero (100 AD) Description An account of the resource A famed Roman statesman and philosopher, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) was known for both his contributions to politics via the Roman senate and his works on ethics, political philosophy, and rhetoric. Cicero was born into wealth and thus received a thorough education in Greece and Rome, and immediately embarked into the political life. His talent for oration quickly ensured his meteoric rise to the rank of praetor, delivering speeches both deliberative and judicial. In terms of his philosophy, Cicero was an avid scholar of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle. Their influence can be observed in his conception of ethics, Cicero having borrowed the foundations for his virtue theory from the three. In Cicero’s work De Officiis, his model of virtue is similar to that of Plato’s—consisting of justice, prudence/wisdom, temperance, and courage (Cicero, Book I) (Plato, Book IV). Likewise, Cicero shared the belief that a virtuous life was a prerequisite to a truly happy one. However, Cicero disagreed on the case of rhetoric. Rejecting Plato’s assertion that all rhetoric was mere pandering independent from knowledge of the relevant subject (Gorgias 453b-465e), Cicero declared that rhetoric was an intricate art requiring expertise in the topic. Furthermore, much like Aristotle, Cicero believed that rhetoric was necessary for the progression of society. While Plato portrayed rhetoric as inherently evil, Cicero presented the opposite, culminating in his representation of the “ideal orator” (De Oratore, Book I). The works of Cicero, along with Plato and Aristotle, composed a significant portion of Petrarch’s revival of classical literature (see item “Petrarch” in “Political Philosophy of Classical Antiquity”). Cicero’s relevance to Early Modern Europe arises not just in his philosophy, but in the latter half of his life. Having been a firsthand witness to the ascension of Julius Caesar, the transition from a republic to a dictatorship provoked a power struggle between the senate and Caesar—one emblematic of the later struggles between monarchs and parliament. Now a senator, Cicero saw Caesar’s initial ascension via his alliance—the First Triumvirate—as a threat to Roman democracy, declining to join in spite of Caesar’s invitation. From that point on, Cicero endeavored to alienate Caesar’s allies from one another and criticized Caesar, but did so to little avail. Eventually, facing pressure to do so, Cicero succumbed and joined the alliance. Following the civil war that established Caesar’s dictatorship (with Cicero opposing Caesar), Cicero reluctantly returned to the senate under pardon from Caesar. To Cicero, Caesar’s unlimited jurisdiction undermined the power of the senate and thus democracy. To Caesar, the senate was often an antagonist to exacting his will. Though not directly involved in Caesar’s later assassination, Cicero expressed his support, which in turn deteriorated his relationship with Mark Antony, Julius’ successor. Like his relationship with Julius, Cicero continued his history of antagonization. He would often deliver scathing critiques of Antony to the public, eventually convincing the senate to declare Antony an enemy of the state. Finally, Antony responded by listing Cicero as an enemy of the Triumvirate, resulting in Cicero’s assassination (Balsdon and Ferguson). Over a millennium later, the struggles between monarch and legislative body experienced by Cicero had become a recurring theme in the hybrid governments of Early Modern Europe (discussed in week six of HIST 139). Most notably, the antagonistic relationship between the monarchs of France and parlement resembled that of Cicero and Caesar/Antony. Throughout the reign of Louis XIV, parlement and the monarch were at odds due to competing policy interests, resulting in conflicts such as the Fronde, a violent revolt. Exhausting France’s finances via continuous war like his predecessors, King Louis XV turned to increased taxation as a means of replenishment. Parlement, however, opposed every single attempt made by the king to do so. Following a series of hostile exchanges, Louis XV dissolved parlement, resulting in a sharp rise in anonymous criticisms against him (Wiesner-Hanks, p. 329-32). Similarly, the relationship between Parliament and monarch in the reigns of England’s James VI and Charles I was fraught with discord. As with the French monarchs, James VI spent much of his country’s finances. Additionally, to raise funds, he would often attempt to circumvent Parliament, angering them. His career was marred with opposition to the Parliament, at one point illegitimately removing a page from Parliament’s Book of Commons to nullify their decision. His successor, Charles I, went as far as to attempt the arrest of five members of Parliament, with his career ending in civil war. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Balsdon, John, and John Ferguson. "Marcus Tullius Cicero." Encyclopedia Britannica.October 4, 2018. Accessed November 16, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. De Oratore. Edited by E. H. Warmington. Translated by E. W. Sutton. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Accessed November 16, 2018. https://archive.org/stream/cicerodeoratore01ciceuoft/cicerodeoratore01ciceuoft_djvu.txt. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. De Officiis. Translated by Walter Miller. New York, NY: MacMillan Company, 2014. September 29, 2014. Accessed November 16, 2018. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/47001/47001-h/47001-h.htm. Luiz, José. Bust of Cicero. September 24, 2016. Capitoline Museums, Rome. In Wikimedia. December 10, 2016. Accessed November 17, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bust_of_Cicero_(1st-cent._BC)_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg. Plato. Gorgias. Translated by Chris Emlyn-Jones and Walter Hamilton. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2004. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe 1450-1789. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Photo is Creative Commons https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/25555af35c4f8aef41a4eafcb85f0772.JPG 8fde51c60acd52f9768f0790e3eaa218 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Coffeehouses during the Enlightenment Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kaan Taskintuna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 17th Century Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Interior_of_a_London_Coffee-house,_17th_century.JPG Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Description An account of the resource The painting is of a London coffeehouse during the Enlightenment in the late 17th century. England was famous for its coffeehouses during the time. These places were public spheres where men (women were excluded) would exchange ideas and join discussions. Many historians regard the English coffee houses during the 17th and 18th centuries as the most important Enlightened public sphere in England, One could enter the coffeehouse with a penny, get their cup off coffee, and become part of that day's intellectual discussions. A penny would also grant the patrons access to newspapers. In fact, coffeehouses in Oxford earned a name for becoming "penny universities". They offered an alternate way of learning and passing on information that was different from the traditional classroom or court education. What made coffeehouses special and a symbol of the Age of Enlightenment was the fact that the coffee-house was not limited to a specific socio-economic or social class. They were open for everyone from a variety of classes to participate in and become engaged in the conversation. The price of coffee, a penny, brought people together and facilitated conversation. People could come to coffee houses and bring their diverse backgrounds and ideas with them to engage in debates. With the free and unrestricted flow of ideas in coffeehouses, rational discourse was possible (Calhoun). The coffeehouses played a significant role in the formation of the Enlightenment legacies as they are known today. Perhaps some of the most important ones that coffeehouses contributed to was to think freely, rationally, and openly. Historiographical debate: Historians have had varying opinions on the social significance of coffeehouses on the intellectual development of England (Calhoun). Initially, they were interpreted (under the Whig school of thought) as a catalyst in England's march towards a constitutional monarchy. These views were expressed during the times coffeehouses were in their golden age. However, Cowan, in 2005 argues that "the acceptance of coffee drinking was not a foregone conclusion but instead became socially legitimate through the new virtuoso culture of curiosity and an increasingly commercial world" (Calhoun 78). According to Calhoun, Cowan's interpretation does not get stuck on the Whig ideology and tries to look at the coffeehouse from a more objective standpoint. References: Calhoun, Bonnie. "Shaping the Public Sphere: English Coffeehouses and French Salons and the Age of the Enlightenment." Colgate Academic Review 3 (June 29, 2012): 75-99. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/14f0c2e7da7567901e876588e1bbba31.jpg 958636b7373cc35dc964c15758e6ce15 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Collège des Quatre-Nations (College of the Four Nations) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Louis Le Vau Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kaan Taskintuna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1662-1684 Description An account of the resource Collège des Quatre-Nations, was one of the colleges of the University of Paris. The building itself was built with baroque influences by Louis Le Vau (1612-1670). The completion of the college, its construction, and its opening in 1688 all happened during Louis XIV's reign (1643-1715). Le Vau proposed to the executors of the estate that the college be placed on the left bank of the Seine River so that Louis XIV would have a clear view of it from his apartments ("Paris"). The starting and ending dates of the Enlightenment is generally considered to be late 17th century and early 19th century, or rather an "extended 18th century". The college was built around the times that the Enlightenment began in Western Europe. In 1666, King Louis XIV had founded the learned society he named the French Academy of Sciences. The man who suggested the foundation of this society to Louis XIV was Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the same man who was one of the executors of the College ("Academy..."). The French Royal Academy of Sciences was one of many of the learned societies/acadèmies that started to emerge at the time. The ever-growing participation in these academies, not only the Sciences, was a symbol of the emphasis on reason, individualism, and skepticism. In 1805, the Collège des Quatre-Nations was given to the Institut de France which had five academies (Humanities, Sciences, Fine Arts, Architecture, and Political Sciences) under its name. Institut de France still runs the building and is the site is also a museum. References: "Academy of Sciences: French Organization." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/. "Paris." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/03_Institut_de_France.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic (CC BY-SA 2.0) https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/3e62c0199e8859ac5c118a87c9cbb921.jpg 41207259b4b328595b5dc4ad00d5c7c2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Coricancha Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource "Architects": Incans of Cusco, Spanish conquistadors and missionaries Photo: McKay Savage Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Maddie Gartland Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Complex construction: Mid-1400s Spanish destruction, and cathedral: mid to late 1500s Photo: 2012 Description An account of the resource The Andean city of Cusco, located in modern-day Peru, was the capital of the Incan empire from the 13th century until the Spanish arrival in 1533. Coricancha (literally "gold enclosure") was the Incan empire's most important temple complex, considered the most sacred site in the Incan religion, and it was also regarded as the very center of the Inca world. The original complex was built using ashlar masonry, in which finely cut stone blocks were fitted together without mortar. It housed several temples to various deities of the Incan pantheon; the most important of these was the Temple of the Sun, which was dedicated to the sun god Inti and was furnished with astonishing amounts of gold (gold artifacts, statues, and even sheets of gold which were hung on the interior and exterior walls) (Cartwright). The complex's layout was in the approximate shape of a sun, with "rays" (roads, both actual and spiritual) that radiated out from the complex. (The Inca favored this kind of symbolic planning––in fact, the city of Cusco was lain out in the shape of the sacred jaguar, with Coricancha at its tail (Cartwright).) The complex was designed to let in as much sunlight as possible, and there were several open spaces as well. Spanish colonization in Cusco changed everything. Most of the gold from the Temple of the Sun and the rest of the complex was seized and melted down for the Spanish crown, and the Spanish also wasted little time in destroying much of the original Incan complex. In its place, the Spanish conquerors built the Church of Santo Domingo, maintaining some functional continuity (it remained a spiritual center) but effectively demolishing the one religion and replacing it with the other (Cartwright). Tearing down the spiritual center of the Incan empire certainly sent a message of Spanish power and superiority, not to mention the priority of Catholicism. This new cathedral was, of course, built in the Spanish design, with Spanish materials and Spanish methods. The example of Coricancha displays the way that destroying native architecture and replacing it with colonial architecture served as a means of subjugation; here, it established a new predominant faith and the power of the Spanish to dominate even that which the native peoples found sacred. This replacement of indigenous creations with Spanish colonial ones was not uncommon in the New World, and was potentially an influential factor in the psychological subjugation of the indigenous peoples, making them feel alien in their own establishments. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peru_-_Cusco_023_-_Qorikancha_(7084772615).jpg Cartwright, Mark. "Coricancha" last modified March 9, 2014. https://www.ancient.eu/Coricancha/ Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Creative Commons 2.0, free re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/03783eeab88f5f4bb415115a1d43eaeb.jpeg f19b645e4dc77c9651328c0f8db37d7e Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data This image has been taken from scan 000027 from "[Through Spain: a narrative of travel and adventure. ... Illustrated.]". The title and subject terms of this image have been generated from tags, created by users of the British Library's flickr photostream. Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 1207x1536px Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cortes Armor (from the Royal Armory) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Publisher: R. Bentley & Son Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Teddy Wolfe Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1886 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived “Aztec Empire from ‘[Through Spain: A Narrative of Travel and Adventure. ... Illustrated.].’” Europeana Collections. Accessed November 13, 2018. https://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/9200387/BibliographicResource_3000117289164.html. Matthew Restall, Seven Myths of Spanish Conquest, (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Marked Description An account of the resource Hernán Cortes was a prominent Spanish Conquistador who went on an expedition against the Aztec empire. The attached image is of the armor he used during the trip. It was placed in a Spanish museum to honor his legacy and represents some of the mythos surrounding him. Cortés legacy was built on letters to the King that allowed him to become one of “…the most recognizable of God’s agents… [due to their] rapid publication and wide circulation…” (Restall, 14). He became a symbol of imperial policy, and his accounts were a justification of imperial actions, as they showed him spreading civilization and Christianity throughout the New World. Yet, it’s important to remember that these were HIS texts. They were biased. Despite this, subsequent historians held them up, as seen with his armor being placed in a museum, and from this quote by historian Charles Gibson in 1966, “Although no conquistador rivaled Cortés in military skill or in the capacity to control the conquest aftermath, all subsequent campaigns were… modeled upon the conquest of the Aztec empire” (Restall, 19). Yet, Cortés was not the first to use many of his now-famous tactics, as plenty were commonly used or simply myth— like burning his ships. Furthermore, much of the credit for the invasion should be given to the native warriors who fought alongside him. He had plenty of native allies, as many other groups like the Huejotzincans sought to exploit the Spanish arrival to challenge the Aztécs. These groups, “…saved Spaniards from starvation, rescued individual Spaniards, acted as spies, and fought along with Spanish horsemen in sorties against the besiegers” (Restall, 49). Without these services, Spaniards most likely wouldn’t have been able to get a foothold in the New World— as they had no idea how to speak the languages or what was edible among the new plants and animals. Colonialism Conquistadors Cortes Native Americans spain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/5b5cfb2e1dae6b0b27775f35cb272048.jpg f21f1865d69b44da1df089e4900416e5 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cover Page of Sidereus Nuncius Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Galileo Galilei Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1610 Description An account of the resource This is an image of the cover page of Galileo’s <em>Sidereus Nuncius, </em>usually translated as <em>Starry Messenger</em>. The book describes Galileo’s early discoveries with his telescope, foremost of which were the four moons of Jupiter. Galileo named these the Medician Stars, as can be seen on the cover page, honoring the powerful Medici family of Italy (Wiesner-Hanks 378). He did this because the Medici family was Galileo’s primary patron, supporting him in his quest for science. This patronage demonstrates the growing relationship between scientists and the nobility in the mid to late 16^th Writers and other artists had had patrons for centuries before, and the nobility often sent their children to universities for education, but the fact that scientists were being brought into the system of patronage is significant. It shows that their work was valued and supported by the nobility of the time. Galileo’s dedication is his way of repaying the Medici’s support by honoring them in his discoveries. This patronage shows that education in early 17^th century was not merely viewed as a means to an end, but that scientific discovery was valuable for nothing other than its educational purposes and regarded as a legitimate art form and profession. With this book, Galileo began his assertions against an Aristotelian and Ptolemean universe, instead advocating for a Copernican system. These claims brought him into conflict with the Church, and he was arrested in 1633, though his discoveries had been widely publicized and influenced many other thinkers around the world (Wiesner-Hanks 378). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sidereus_Nuncius_1610.Galileo.jpg Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Benjamin Wightman https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/9a2739649f694bf9ecd0c8d72c2d1242.jpg 24d9c6b5715c46d8c583a3f3b6c928dd Physical Object An inanimate, three-dimensional object or substance. Note that digital representations of, or surrogates for, these objects should use Moving Image, Still Image, Text or one of the other types. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Girolamo Fracastoro Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Jack Williams Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1546 Description An account of the resource Considered by many to be the masterpiece of Girolamo Fracastoro, an Italian poet, physician, astrologist and geologist, this manuscript was the first text to suggest the idea of germ theory. In it Fracastoro suggests the idea of disease-causing particles known as “fomites” which rapidly multiply and cause disease. His ideas were widely praised at the time of this book’s publishing, but were largely discounted until 300 years later, when his theories were properly proved by Koch and Pasteur. Fracastoro is a classic example of the “renaissance man” a scientist whose many disparate studies covered the gamut of renaissance science. Fracastoro was a colleague of Copernicus, and likely studied astronomy with the famous astronomer (Nutton). What makes this book interesting in the overall idea of the scientific revolution is its startling accuracy even in a time of superstitious medicine. In it Fracastoro successfully predicts the true cause of disease many centuries before this was properly discovered, and like much of renaissance medicine his ideas are noted but not acted upon. This is what I found the most interesting about medical discoveries in this age, their seeming purposeful ignorance. Even though he suggests a different way of looking at medicine, humoral medicine is still practiced throughout this period. And even though his advice is enough, at one time, to convince the Pope himself to move a vital religious group to avoid disease, the Council of Trent, he is still unable to spread his ideas into common culture (Nutton). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200332/ABO__2BZ165423609.html?q=++De+contagione+et+contagiosis+morbis Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource No Copyright-NonComercial use Only https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/7d63ba038a11980b3f89eefe3389fd01.jpeg a290632f395c77997632370ec08533d0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dedication Page of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Copernicus, Nicolaus Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Matthew Walsh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource c. 1543 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Gallica.bnf.fr, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, original text available <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3350p/f6.image" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Non-Commercial Reuse. Full terms available <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/html/conditions-dutilisation-des-contenus-de-gallica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Description An account of the resource This is the dedication page of Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’ seminal work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres,” which he published in 1543 just months before he died. In it he presents observations which challenge the geocentric model of the universe widely accepted since the time of Ptolemy. He instead argues that Earth and the other planets orbit the Sun. On this page Copernicus dedicates his work to Pope Paul III. The book’s dedication did little to prevent the ensuing criticism from religious leaders (Catholic and Protestant), and some seventy years later with the Galilean controversy beginning to pick up, the text was placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, the Catholic Church forbidding its production, purchase, or reading (Wiesner-Hanks, 376-378). Galileo himself references the dedication Copernicus made to Pope Paul III in his own letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, in which Galileo attempts to present himself and his theories as in line with the true interpretation of Scripture and Christian doctrine (Galileo, np). Copernicus’ papal dedication is a piece of evidence marshaled to show that the observations of astronomers like Copernicus and Galileo were not meant to subvert religion or the Catholic Church. Nonetheless, the hostile reaction to Copernicus’ work, despite its dedication, reveals that the papacy during the Scientific Revolution both supported scientific advancement by scholars affiliated with the Church (particularly Jesuits) and pushed back on certain theories that attacked the underpinnings of philosophy and all thought commonly accepted at the time. Thus the papacy was an institution which both supported and was deeply skeptical of the conclusions of the Scientific Revolution. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/87c678b1d0e3fe581b5085c0401d356a.jpg f17f0da8005f1ef540a91b2480b0b655 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dialogos sobre el comercio de trigo Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ferdinando Galiani Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1775 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Galiani, Ferdinando. Dialogos Sobre El Comercio De Trigo. Madrid: Por D. Joachin Ibarra, 1775. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Description An account of the resource Italian economic political theory played an important role during the age of crisis and throughout the enlightenment. Economic theorist Ferdinando Galiani focuses on Value and Interest theory as well as Economic Policy (Ferdinando). He specifically argued that the commodity demand was inversely proportional to the price and compared relative scarcity to diminishing marginal utility (Ferdinando). In addition to Value Theory, he contemplated over the morality of interest loans and eventually came to the conclusion that interest “compensates the lender for the risk entailed in parting with his money” and is therefor legal and moral (Ferdinando). He also argues for a lesser degree of mercantilism protectionist international trade policy regarding specific products (Ferdinando). His view of economic policies during the age of crisis and the rise of the Northern Europe play an instrumental role in understanding economic development during this time period. Historian Paolo Malanima, provides a unique understanding of the age of crisis in Italy with an assessment that the GDP increase, even when wars, plagues, and poor harvests decimated Italy’s population. She even goes as far to mention “specific innovations and examples of growth in Italy in these centuries” during this “so-called crisis” (Malanima 25). Other historians such as Gregory Handlon argue on the opposite side of the spectrum. He claims that due to the shift to the Atlantic, plagues, poor crop yields, and war all contributed the Italy’s collapse. Ferdinando in the midst of this debate, would recognizes the agriculture and manufacturing problems facing Italy. From a political view, these economic hardships, would prevent the Italian states form unifying and growing strong enough to establish themselves as one of the leading colonizers during the age of exploration. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/28945b38ff747bedc0c72189ab967251.jpg 8a926c8c055689f29dac985174ae98a3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Die Medizin indes zu verachten ist nicht Dummheit, sondern Frevel By Melanchthon Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Phillip Melanchthon Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Jack Williams Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1497-1560 Description An account of the resource Any discussion on the impact of the Protestant reformation on the study of the body, and medicine as a whole, must begin with a discussion of Protestant education. Melanchthon, a contemporary and friend of Luther’s, is widely considered to be responsible for the reformation of Protestant education as a whole (Helm 84). As a professor at Wittenberg he was a key part of its transformation into a powerful educational landmark, as well as how its students studied the body and anatomy. One key difference at the time between Catholic and Protestant studies of anatomy and other sciences was the intended purpose of the education. For the Catholic anatomy was an old art, often studied theoretically, and only forced into more common use in the latter half of the 16th century (Helm 88). There it was commonly used as a method by which to train medical professionals, not often for other reasons. In the Protestant camp however, which was heavily influenced by Melanchthon’s emphasis on natural philosophy, the study of anatomy was seen as a way to understand an ordered world created by an ordered god. Melanchthon himself believed that all Christians should study anatomy, not just those planning to use it at some point in their lives. The outgrowth of this new Protestant education method was quick throughout Germany, and many universities took up the liberal arts model of Wittenberg, as well as its emphasis on the importance of anatomy (Helm 86. What is worth noting is that against what one might expect, religion still plays a major part in the discovery and teaching of medicine, Melanchthon believes it should be studied because “The whole world order is a wonderful theatre, in which God wants to be looked at, and he wishes that the obvious testimonies of his presence, his wisdom and his goodness will be considered here.” (Helm, other 55) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived http://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/07931/diglit_schosser1558.html?q=Melanchthon Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource CC BY SA https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/cbad8269f8cfc50f4f6b0c9d18d38cc1.jpg f49b53ae5b068841c7127373ae76ad98 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Print Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Diet of Augsburg Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Christian Bayer Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Andrew Fitch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1530 Description An account of the resource Protestantism had taken Germany by storm in the early 1500s. The Edict of Worms decreed in 1521 at the behest of Charles V declared Martin Luther a heretic and forbade anyone from supporting him, yet this did little to stop the rampant spread of Protestantism through Germany. Nine years later the already loosely united Germany was becoming more and more fractured as protestant political authorities were beginning to form military alliances throughout the nation. In an effort to bring some unity and consolidation into his empire, Charles the V summoned protestant princes to the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 with hopes to end the religious divide. At this diet, the princes produced the Augsburg Confession, a statement of faith drafted by Luther’s associate Melanchthon that contained the defining principles of Protestant faith (Wiesner-Hanks 181). These principles, like the belief that all should take part in the drinking of the blood of Christ during Eucharist and that salvation is achieved through faith alone, were irreconcilable with the Catholic faith (Wiesner-Hanks 170). Charles refused this text outright and demanded that all protestant princes return to Catholicism by a set deadline. However, instead of quelling the Lutheran princes, Charles's response further escalated the conflict. The threats of Charles V prompted the Protestant German princes to form a defensive military alliance known as the Schmalkaldic League (Wiesner-Hanks 181). At the core of this alliance was the Augsburg Confession, as entry into the league was based on one’s assent of this document. Thus Germany, on the verge of civil conflict, was left more splintered than ever. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Augsburger-Reichstag.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain