2 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/945f73dae89b40eae2b24381081a06b1.jpeg 3177eb4af6b8537d5ea3d671f745512d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Adam Smith Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Zach Irvin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource March 1776 Description An account of the resource Published in 1776 by Scottish philosopher Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations continues to be a seminal piece of classical economics. Smith’s contributions, however, went far beyond the scope of the classical school of thought, defining the very parameters of any discussion of the modern political economy. In fact, Marx’s famous Capital is best understood as a response to Smith and his contemporaries. The Wealth of Nations structured the modern political economy by shaping its civil institutions and informing the discourse that surrounds it. It is important to situate Smith’s works within the broader developments of the late eighteenth century. As a central figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith observed a very changing economic landscape in which the introduction of new production methods facilitated an accumulation of capital that was truly unprecedented at the time. Reconsidering the role of government became a chief concern of classical economists, with Smith developing a laissez-faire approach that limited the scope of the state apparatus in commercial activities. Although Smith often approached economics at its most aggregate level, he often considered the role of the industrial laborer, saying that "his dexterity at his own particular trade seems, in this manner, to be acquired at the expence of his intellectual, social, and martial virtues. But in every improved and civilized society this is the state into which the labouring poor, that is, the great body of the people, must necessarily fall, unless government takes some pains to prevent it."(Smith, 302). Even in Smith's works the commoner is taken to be a central agent to the modern economy. It was this “Smithian” ideology that would come to dominate economic thought for centuries to come. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Adam Smith. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations , 1856. University of Edinburgh. <a href="https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200271/BibliographicResource_3000058904375.html?q=An+Inquiry+into+the+Nature+and+Causes+of+the+Wealth+of+Nations">https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200271/BibliographicResource_3000058904375.html?q=An+Inquiry+into+the+Nature+and+Causes+of+the+Wealth+of+Nations</a> Smith, Adam. An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Volume 3. G. Walker, 1822. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Use CC BY https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/16be6eb784f1bac670d62f627550d888.jpeg 22daef7e4162ccaca4f027e786154ed9 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 48 cm x 35 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource William I, Prince of Oranje | Key, Adriaen Thomasz. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Adriaen Thomasz Key Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1579 Description An account of the resource William I of Nassau, Prince of Orange, who was also known as William the Silent, was an important figure in the Dutch Revolt against the Spanish Empire. The Dutch Revolt had its roots in the spread of Calvinism to the region and the subsequent iconoclastic violence that broke out in the second half of the 16th century, during the reign of King Philip II of Spain. William emerged as a key military leader in the Dutch Republic, which was formed the union of the seven northernmost provinces of the region. William’s leadership and position in the revolt prompted his assassination in 1584 (Wiesner-Hanks, 195). William not only typifies the religious and political upheavals that occurred as a result of the Protestant Reformation, but he is also key in connecting the Low Countries to a wider European context. The conflict in the Netherlands expanded to include France, Germany, and England in what began as a Spanish conflict. In 1568, William aligned himself with Huguenot (Protestant) leaders in France and marched into France to attempt to turn the tide of the conflict (Holt 69). The English helped fund the Dutch rebels, and Philip II of Spain retaliated against the English by sending the Spanish Armada to attempt to invade England (Wiesner-Hanks, 195). Despite William’s promotion of religious tolerance in the Netherlands, many Catholics sought refuge in the Holy Roman Empire, in cities such as Cologne (Janssen 475-6). These examples illustrate how religiously-motivated conflicts such as those in France and the Low Countries were not self-contained, but rather drew in many third parties. Works Cited: Janssen, Geert H. "Quo Vadis? Catholic Perceptions of Flight and the Revolt of the Low Countries, 1566–1609." Renaissance Quarterly 64, no. 2 (2011): 472-99. doi:10.1086/661797. Holt, Mack P. “‘The beginning of a tragedy’: the early wars of religion, 1562-1570.” in The French Wars of Religion, 1562-1629, 65-70. Cambridge University Press, 1995. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. “Religious reform and consolidation, 1450-1600.” in Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789, 192-196. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/90402/SK_A_3148.html Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e1357fdc92d8ae9e7db027e5f9737434.jpg 763bf3a55fd5c914b10ce2f76ec5b555 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Engraving Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early depiction of a ‘dutch telescope’ Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Adriaen van de Venne Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1624 Description An account of the resource The development of the earliest telescopes is the source of some debate among historians, as numerous individuals claimed to be the inventors of the telescope. The Low Countries and Italy both emerge as potential locations for its invention, and numerous individuals claimed to have conceived of the invention or pursued patents. Hans Lippershey first applied for a patent for the telescope in the Netherlands in 1608, but the patent was denied as the patent office had identified others capable of making similar devices (van Helden 20-21). Conceptually, the telescope appeared it Italy in the writings of Giovanni Battista della Porta, who claimed to have invented the device first after hearing of Galileo’s successes with his telescope (Freedberg 101). Galileo acknowledged the primacy of an unnamed Dutch inventor in developing a telescope, but also declared he had invented the telescope, contrasting his invention as an enlightened development against a Dutch accident while making glasses (Rosen 305-306). Historian Albert van Helden approaches the declaration of a sole inventor cautiously, declaring that “the telescope was not invented, so to speak, ex nihilo” (van Helden 24). In other words, the telescope did not suddenly appear as a new invention, but instead emerged from a much larger history of lens-making and optics. Van Helden restates the question of “Who invented the telescope?” as “who first realized that such a device could be used for another purpose and set about adapting and improving it in order to obtain the greatest magnification possible?” (van Helden 24-25). This approach to analyzing the development of the telescope acknowledges the process as ingrained in the wider context of optical developments. Historian Engel Sluiter, alternatively, approaches the invention of the telescope as a development that began with Lippershey’s invention and attributed the source to the Low Countries alone, stating “its dispersion was entirely from the Low Countries outward” (Sluiter 228). Sluiter divides the development of the telescope into “phases,” where the first phase spans its “invention to dispersion over Europe,” and ends with Galileo’s use of the telescope (Sluiter 223). This interpretation characterizes the development of the telescope as a more revolutionary event that initiated a phase of rapid dispersion and innovation. While Sluiter’s interpretation aligns more neatly with the perceived speed at which the telescope was spread across Europe (which Sluiter himself tracks in detail), van Helden’s wider look at the intellectual and practical roots of the development of the telescope supports and acknowledges the complexity in even identifying a singular inventor of the device. Works Cited Freedberg, David. “The Telescope: Imperfection in the Heavens.” The Eye of the Lynx.101-117. University of Chicago Press, 2002. Rosen, Edward. "Did Galileo Claim He Invented the Telescope?" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 98, no. 5 (1954): 304-12. <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3143908">http://www.jstor.org/stable/3143908</a>. Sluiter, Engel. “The Telescope Before Galileo.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 28, no. 3 (1997): 223-234. doi:10.1177/002182869702800302. Van Helden, Albert. "The Invention of the Telescope." Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 67, no. 4 (1977): 1-67. doi:10.2307/1006276. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emblemata_1624.jpg">https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emblemata_1624.jpg</a> Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This item is in the public domain. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/b2d2e51280957b845779231c28be3135.png c55da4f27e81a0bd5a8d483259a80356 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cross Cultural Interaction and Early Modern European Art Description An account of the resource This collection examines the advancements in maritime trade and foreign contact and how this impacted art during Early Modern Europe. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rylyn Monahan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1500-1800 Physical Object An inanimate, three-dimensional object or substance. Note that digital representations of, or surrogates for, these objects should use Moving Image, Still Image, Text or one of the other types. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource La Dovizia Description An account of the resource This tapestry was the first work from Florence of a new tapestry workshop founded by Duke Cosimo de’Medici in the 1540s. Around two meters tall, it was likely used as a door hanger, and a later inventory lists it as a “dovizia with a landscape,” dovizia meaning abundance, but the name also also “encompasses the idea of wealth, prosperity, and fecundity” (Markey 17). An already common allegorical figure in Florentine art, Dovizia is now accompanied by a turkey in the center of the tapestry. While the other animals and details carry other meanings such as the turtle which reflected Augustus' ancient motto "make haste slowly," the turkey redefined some of the symbolism of the flora and fauna from America (Markey 17). The Duke and his wife experienced these items secondhand if at all, but they were avid appreciators and collectors of American goods which led to the Duke's development of the first botanical garden of Pisa. Other New World goods also were woven into the fabric of tapestries, such as maize which was cultivated “in Rome as early as the 1510s” and then appeared on fresco borders (Markey 21). Even while not playing an active role in American conquest, the Duke promoted artwork including grottos, frescoes, and this tapestry, which transformed the American turkey into an idea of abundance. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Agnolo Bronzino Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived “A Turkey in a Medici Tapestry.” Imagining the Americas in Medici Florence, by Lia Markey, Penn State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania, 2016, pp. 17-27. Museo degli argenti, Florence, Italy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1545 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rylyn Monahan Americas Italy Tapestry https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/fd0a922c148f3768cd55aa8e455b53ad.jpeg 95c0f82b4ded1978325c21e48acac3aa Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Digital photo Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 1,200 × 1,600 pixels Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Monument of Spanish King Philip IV on Place de Oriente, Madrid Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Aklyuch Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 17 July 2006 Description An account of the resource Perhaps the most famous figure of the Scientific Revolution is the Italian mathematician Galileo Galilei, known for his contributions to the fields of astronomy and physics. He famously quarreled with the Inquisition due to controversy over his religious interpretations of his astronomical discoveries (Freedberg 123), finally resulting in Galileo’s house arrest in 1633 that would last until his death in 1642. This did not stop him, however, from making great contributions to science and culture. Lost among the many advances attributed to Galileo is the Monument to King Philip IV if Spain. King Philip IV ruled Spain from 1621 to 1665, which coincided with both the Spanish Golden Age and the Scientific Revolution. Philip commissioned the creation of an equestrian statue of himself similar to the famous statue of his father, Philip III. Italian sculptor Pietro Tacca, who worked on this project from 1633 to 1640, undertook an impossible challenge to support the statue only using the hind legs of the horse. This task had never been successfully completed, and common practice was to have the horse stand on at least three legs so that the weight of the statue could be evenly distributed. Tacca eventually contacted Galileo to help him solve this problem. Galileo’s solution was to hollow the front of the horse while keeping the back solid so that a majority of the statue’s weight would be over the rear legs. He also recommended having the tail connect to the base of the statue, which would provide more support to the rear (Valentiner 36). Galileo’s propositions were successfully implemented, and the equestrian statue of Philip IV still stands today as a monument of Galileo’s ingenuity. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carlos-IV.JPG Freedberg, David. The Eye of the Lynx: Galileo, His Friends, and the Beginnings of Modern Natural History. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2004. Valentiner, W. R. "AN EQUESTRIAN STATUETTE OF PHILIP IV OF SPAIN." Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts of the City of Detroit 15, no. 3 (1935): 34-38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41501407. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/7300da647472178497be050b0d78ed38.jpg a75fa5fcefb0d79a9fd15d8b9e0d5179 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cross Cultural Interaction and Early Modern European Art Description An account of the resource This collection examines the advancements in maritime trade and foreign contact and how this impacted art during Early Modern Europe. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rylyn Monahan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1500-1800 Physical Object An inanimate, three-dimensional object or substance. Note that digital representations of, or surrogates for, these objects should use Moving Image, Still Image, Text or one of the other types. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Rhinoceros Description An account of the resource In 1515, Albrecht Durer, a notable German painter of the Renaissance, produced a woodcut engraving of a rhinoceros that the Sultan of Gujarat gifted to Europe. It made its way to the King of Portugal and almost to Pope Leo X before a shipwreck caused its drowning. The interest in the animal stemmed first from an interest in antiquity and the Roman Empire since the rhino matched the description of Pliny’s beast, and it also demonstrated the intrigue in communications with the East (BBC). The Ottomans “dominated the eastern Mediterranean,” and to maintain the traditional spice trade between western Europe and the Indian Ocean, Spain and Portugal embarked on the Atlantic Ocean (BBC). The rhinoceros traveled via the sea to its desired new location, representing feats of engineering to carry an almost two ton animal. Depicted with an armored skin and an additional horn, the rhino that Durer drew came from another sketch and not the real animal. Later, the print revolution enabled this print to be widely disseminated to the public. Sketches of the animal and Durer’s print became widely accessible to the general public instead of just the elites, and Europeans became enamored by its exoticism. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Albrecht Durer Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <a href="https://www.artic.edu/artworks/30283/the-rhinoceros" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Art Institute of Chicago</a> Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1515 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rylyn Monahan engraving Germany India Portugal https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/967bccaa37820b2d252f3a4d7c2ff5b4.pdf b2ed75cb117d0523ece0e2775d7aa17c Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data pdf Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Introduction Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Andrew Fitch Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Andrew Fitch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/18/2018 Description An account of the resource An introduction to the collection "Politics and Power in the Holy Roman Empire" https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/7f5a6e4eda7ea75c5dabbd5ac8f6d54f.JPG dd774eaab12ccc5e9116edd2e75b0779 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Le Petit Trianon Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ange-Jacques Gabriel Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kaan Taskintuna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1762 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petit_Trianon#/media/File:West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource CC BY-SA 3.0, Free to share with appropriate credit to the owner Description An account of the resource Le Petit Trianon is a château on the Palace of Versailles grounds. Its construction started in 1758 under the order of Louis XV and was completed in 1768 by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, one of Louis XV's favorite architects during the time period. Gabriel's work on the Petit Trianon could be described as a "a manifesto for the neo-classical movement" (Château De Versailles). The château is heavily inspired by ancient Greek architecture. The photograph above is of the west façade which contains much more attention to detail compared to the other sides, and includes four Corinthian columns arranged in a meticulous manner. The proportions in its composition achieves harmony and elegance. The time period when this palace was built is one marked by absolutist rule in France. Louis XV stepped onto the throne after the infamous Louis XIV's death in 1715. To this day, Louis XIV is seen as the symbol of absolute monarchy in the late 1600s and early 1700s. In fact, he gave himself the title of the "Sun King". One of his main goals was to centralize the control of France and make the Palace of Versailles the center of France. During his reign, Louis XIV had rendered parlements powerless and collected as many nobles as he could and put them under his direct control. According to estimations, the Palace of Versailles' cost was that of a modern airport. While many people in France were struggling, Louis XIV was pouring obscene amounts of resources onto his ideal palace. With the flamboyant palace, the distance between the monarchy and the people grew exponentially. Although Le Petit Trianon was built after Louis XIV's reign, it certainly does carry his legacy. Louis XV, after all, was not any different than XIV and he continued to garner the hate of the public. The isolation between the monarchy and the people kept increasing under Louis XV. The Petit Trianon shows that what Louis XIV had done with the Palace was not enough; more expenses were being made to expand the flamboyant grand palace. Eventually, the sheltered actions of the crown's consequence turned out to be the French Revolution. References: "Louis XIV." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/. "Louis XV." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/. "The Petit Trianon." Palace of Versailles. October 30, 2018. Accessed November 18, 2018. http://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/estate/estate-trianon/petit-trianon#history-of-the-premises . https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/19da2c2380ea82200b6034f8121dcd00.jpg d9f204fcfbdba0873aec09280fe83485 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Salon de Madame Geoffrin Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Benjamin Wightman Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1812 Description An account of the resource This painting depicts a group of people listening to a reading of Voltaire’s L’Orphelin de la Chine, a play published in 1755. This gathering is a meeting of a salon, a private group of individuals who would meet to read and discuss various works. The topics would be chosen by the salonnière, the woman who hosted the meeting in her own home (Wiesner-Hanks 369-70). The salonnière held the power to select which guests would be invited, but she held no formal position or power in French society. Despite their role in the public sphere of intellectual discourse, “no woman was elected to the Académie Française until 1979” (Wiesner-Hanks 370). As we can see from Wollstonecraft’s work, women and men were not being educated equally, but how exactly were women viewed during the Enlightenment? In her article “Enlightenment and the Uses of Women,” Barbara Taylor identifies several historians whose views on the subject of women in the Enlightenment she opposes. Catherine Belsey’s view seems to be a good summary. She argues that the Enlightenment attempted to “legitimize the subordination of […] women” (Taylor 80). Belsey and historians that share her views cite various works of Enlightenment thinkers that associate women with the vice of luxury, which appears to have been a popular claim at the time. While it is undoubtedly true that there were many sexist sentiments written during the Enlightenment, it is important to recognize that comments of that sort were circulating in various works in times before and after the Enlightenment as well. Taylor does not argue that such claims do not exist, but rather that alongside them emerge during the Enlightenment works that highlight the virtues of women, as their authors saw them. This often included their ability to make men gentler and less barbaric, and several authors argued that giving women more license in society is what separated civilized nations from the barbaric ones (Taylor 83-84). While those views are clearly Eurocentric, and still wholly concerned with how women can benefit men, the sentiment of advocating for women’s rights remains. Women were surely not considered equal to men, even by proponents of women’s rights at the time, but each sex had their own separate virtues and vices. As Wollstonecraft alluded in her text discussed above, each sex needed the other for European society to function as it existed. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/f77b4dd050ef7cdbdab7343351eab3e1.jpg fe23cc122782b4319eb1af7699b0ce93 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Height: 51.5 cm Width: 62 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Frederick the Great Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anton Graff Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Andrew Fitch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1781 Description An account of the resource The War of Austrian Succession established the dualism of Prussia and Austria which would characterize the empire until its collapse in 1806. At the end of the 30 years war in 1648 very few Germans likely would have been able to predict Prussia’s rise. Brandenburg (the principal holding of the Hohenzollern family) was devastated by the war and the Hapsburgs had been relatively unchallenged with regards to both their emperorship and their power for generations (Wiesner-Hanks 351). Prussia was only able to turn its fortunes around thanks to a series of strategic rulers, starting with Frederick William, the “Great Elector”. Frederick William, (ruled 1640 - 1688) and his grandson (also named Frederick William, 1713 - 1740) used absolute policies to build a huge and highly trained army (Wiesner-Hanks 352). However, it was Frederick II “the Great” (ruled 1740 - 1786) who truly established Prussia as a powerful contender in both the Holy Roman Empire and Europe as a whole. Frederick II, pictured in the self-portrait above, achieved a great reputation as a military leader and greatly expanded Prussia’s power and size. Over the course of his reign, he increased the size of Prussia’s army from about 83,000 to over 190,000 (Anderson). He put this massive army to use as well, as evident when he seized Silesia from Austria during the war of Austrian Succession. His prowess is again evident in his ability to ward off France, Austria, and Russia in the seven years war (Wiesner-Hanks 352). In addition to being a military genius, Frederick II is also famous for being one of the principal “enlightened rulers” in Europe during the 18th century. Frederick II’s prominence as an enlightened ruler is perhaps most evident in the words of Immanuel Kant who, in his work What is Enlightenment, directly correlated Frederick the Great with the Enlightenment when he said, “This is the age of enlightenment and the century of Frederick [the Great]“ (Kant 207). Frederick’s particular style of ruling is often viewed through the lens of enlightened despotism, in which Frederick still had near absolute power but also had many policies that could be viewed as enlightened. One of his most famous policies was his religious toleration, which helped bolster the population of Prussia and increase the size of his army as Jewish and Huguenot exiles moved to Prussia (Anderson). His role as an enlightened ruler is also evident in his abolishment of judicial torture and his attempts to establish a universal primary education system in Prussia (Anderson). Frederick’s many accomplishments would only cause a greater rivalry between Prussia and Austria. This resulted in increased conflict and division within the Holy Roman Empire, further diminishing any chance at the possibility of a unified Germany (Anderson). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Friedrich_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_(1781_or_1786)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/3aff85f1cfe03575af22d091f5905c62.jpg b259ebb3ba6f41ba04f512143739e0ef Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 151.1 cm by 109 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of King Charles III of Spain Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anton Raphael Mengs Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1765 Description An account of the resource Enlightenment ideals were not, on the surface at least, confined to just the leading intellectuals of the time. European monarchs began attaching themselves to Enlightenment principles and thinkers. For instance, the French philosopher Voltaire became a mentor to King Frederick II of Prussia (who became know, like many other Enlightened rules, as “the Great”) (Gordon 29). Enlightened despots, as these monarchs are known, were absolute monarchs who pursued reforms based on the values of the Enlightenment. The Spanish ruler most closely associated with the Enlightenment is King Charles III, who reigned from 1759 to 1788. There is plenty of historiographical debate, however, over whether or not he was a truly enlightened despot. R. R. Palmer, for instance, calls Charles III “one of the most celebrated and successful of the ‘enlightened despots’ “ (Palmer 299). Palmer says that while Charles III employed a “non-political” type of despotism (which is to say he did not seek conflict with the Spanish nobility), he had some success improving Spain’s economic and technological prospects while boosting governmental efficiency (Palmer 299). Jonathan Israel disagrees, however, boldly stating, “the deeply entrenched images of…Charles III of Spain…as ‘enlightened’ is assuredly one of the reasons the Enlightenment as a whole has acquired a bad name” (Israel 534). Israel questions enlightened despots’ commitment to Enlightenment values, noting that Charles III would disregard them when it most suited him. While Charles III did make economic reforms aimed at reducing barriers to trade, many of the actions taken by him and his government were done to solidify their power. Councils and local governments were replaced by ministers, changes that streamlined the king’s ability to govern. The Jesuits were also successfully expelled from Spain due to suspicions about their lack of loyalty to the crown (Lynch), again demonstrating the self-interest in pursuing Enlightenment causes. This information adds more weight to Israel’s argument that Charles III did not truly adopt the tenants of Enlightenment while governing. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Charles_III_of_Spain_high_resolution.jpg Gordon, Daniel, and Voltaire. Candide. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2016. Israel, Jonathan. "Enlightenment! Which Enlightenment?" Journal of the History of Ideas 67, no. 3 (2006): 523-45. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30141040. Lynch, John. "Charles III." Encyclopædia Britannica. January 26, 2010. Accessed November 19, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-III-king-of-Spain. Palmer, R. R., and David Armitage. "THE LIMITATIONS OF ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM." In The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800, 280-306. Princeton University Press, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hhrg5.17. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/91e43aed7e09054317aff0f9eab6a7af.jpg aab05618daf141babc5ab8f4db64c6ba Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Aphra Behn's Oroonoko Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Aphra Behn Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cassidy Bins Description An account of the resource Aphra Behn was an English writer whose work Oronooko addressed the slave trade. She wrote about a slave rebellion in Surinam, drawing upon her own experiences there along with her knowledge of the slave trade (Wiesner-Hanks, 390). The slave trade, put into motion due to demand in the British-dominated Caribbean for cheap labor on sugar plantations, ramped up during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Behn’s story reflects the challenges slaves faced as early capitalism developed on the sugar plantations. Landowners required unskilled labor, which they exploited for profit -- this meant harsh working conditions and the abandonment of subsistence cultivation as the desire for sugar in England grew (Moore). The farming of sugar marked a turning point in England’s economic history, establishing it as a central player in Atlantic trade, but it also had implications for race relations and the increasing disparity in social divisions. Behn was one of the first prominent female writers in England, but the significance of her work doesn’t end there (Wiesner-Hanks, 390). She was one of Europe’s early novel-writers, a literary format that has spread across the world. It served as the predecessor to Voltaire’s Candide, which was another “early novel that incorporated overseas voyages” (Wiesner-Hanks, 390). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Photo: Wikimedia Commons Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe: 1450-1789. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1688