2 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/19da2c2380ea82200b6034f8121dcd00.jpg d9f204fcfbdba0873aec09280fe83485 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Salon de Madame Geoffrin Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Benjamin Wightman Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1812 Description An account of the resource This painting depicts a group of people listening to a reading of Voltaire’s <em>L’Orphelin de la Chine</em>, a play published in 1755. This gathering is a meeting of a salon, a private group of individuals who would meet to read and discuss various works. The topics would be chosen by the <em>salonni</em><em>ère</em>, the woman who hosted the meeting in her own home (Wiesner-Hanks 369-70). The <em>salonni</em><em>ère </em>held the power to select which guests would be invited, but she held no formal position or power in French society. Despite their role in the public sphere of intellectual discourse, “no woman was elected to the Académie Française until 1979” (Wiesner-Hanks 370). As we can see from Wollstonecraft’s work, women and men were not being educated equally, but how exactly were women viewed during the Enlightenment? In her article “Enlightenment and the Uses of Women,” Barbara Taylor identifies several historians whose views on the subject of women in the Enlightenment she opposes. Catherine Belsey’s view seems to be a good summary. She argues that the Enlightenment attempted to “legitimize the subordination of […] women” (Taylor 80). Belsey and historians that share her views cite various works of Enlightenment thinkers that associate women with the vice of luxury, which appears to have been a popular claim at the time. While it is undoubtedly true that there were many sexist sentiments written during the Enlightenment, it is important to recognize that comments of that sort were circulating in various works in times before and after the Enlightenment as well. Taylor does not argue that such claims do not exist, but rather that alongside them emerge during the Enlightenment works that highlight the virtues of women, as their authors saw them. This often included their ability to make men gentler and less barbaric, and several authors argued that giving women more license in society is what separated civilized nations from the barbaric ones (Taylor 83-84). While those views are clearly Eurocentric, and still wholly concerned with how <em>women</em> can benefit <em>men</em>, the sentiment of advocating for women’s rights remains. Women were surely not considered equal to men, even by proponents of women’s rights at the time, but each sex had their own separate virtues and vices. As Wollstonecraft alluded in her text discussed above, each sex needed the other for European society to function as it existed. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/b1b4e1cf4a4f48aa9e9ea8a18747c926.jpg 2d0038010838b6aaf4ebd82cf990d58a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Petrarch Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Moses Jehng Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1304-1374 Description An account of the resource Known as the “Father of Humanism,” Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374) was one of the most influential facilitators in the revitalization of classical antiquity prior to the Renaissance, thus sparking an interest that—as the exhibit will show—endured throughout Early Modern Europe. Born in Arezzo, Italy, Petrarch initially pursued legal studies at the behest of his father. However, he soon abandoned this path in favor of religious studies. Through this, he became thoroughly interested in classical texts deemed “lost” to the ages, searching monasteries across Europe for them. Having read an increasing amount of classical literature, he began to praise the values of Ancient Greece and Rome in his writings, glorifying their societies as civilized and refined. He lauded Aristotle’s approach to self-actualization, as well as the emphasis Plato placed on virtue. Simultaneously, he gained acclaim for his poetry (Whitfield). The works of Petrarch and his translations of classical texts served as inspiration for future scholars and precipitated a veneration for the classics, laying the foundations for the Renaissance (discussed in week one of HIST 139). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Altichiero. Portrait of Francesco Petrarca. C. 1370-80. In Wikimedia. July 7, 2007. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Altichiero,_ritratto_di_Francesco_Petrarca.jpg. Whitfield, John Humphreys. "Petrarch." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Petrarch. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e6c4222d0614c55d276975317176da3a.pdf c1ab41f0381c9668e58ee1933af462f5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Introduction to the Early Modern Papacy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Matthew Walsh https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/b0e0715b027797235f8ad6e5a2dd0b2f.jpg ce5c7ea51509ac93acd196a7f856dc02 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Saint Peter's Basilica Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michelangelo, et. al. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Matthew Walsh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1626 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Wikimedia Commons, original image available <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Petersdom_von_Engelsburg_gesehen.jpg">here.</a> Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain, with full license information available at image page above. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/595bf0beda72d8b8abed67669a240326.png 5f3e4e83532d11a2ef56b7eaf551bdf5 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Moses Brought Before Pharaoh's Daughter Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource William Hogarth Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Claire Guang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1746 Description An account of the resource During the 18th century, landscape became increasingly popular. Additionally, a new interest was placed on history painting. These pieces usually depict a moment in a story which were often moments in religious narratives. This particular piece by Hogarth depicts Moses being given away by his birth mother to the Egyptian princess, his new adopted mother. We don’t see a lot of religious works during this time, as the Anglican Church has become lax and complacent during the 18th century. Unlike previous centuries, religion was respected and tensions between religious groups were not high. Thus, interest in religion during this time was more academic and pragmatic. Although a religious piece, Hogarth does not use this moment to depict morals values, but rather to allude to the themes of childhood, charity, and adoption. This piece was given to the Foundling Hospital, and is one of Hogarth’s more uplifting pieces. His other pieces tended to focus on satire, and dark humor to point out the flaws of society. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.wikiart.org/en/william-hogarth/moses-brought-before-pharaoh-s-daughter-1746 https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/moses-brought-before-pharaohs-daughter-191926 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/7918ecc07c607f5f8d61c2a36324db31.pdf 7aa1ac9d7daf9d5216035aba0461ba1c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Zach Irvin Introduction Paper https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/4d304b097660c55bb842e2a4150357c0.png f1f377fcfdd681e961dba3605e64c1fb Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Death of Socrates Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jacques-Louis David Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Claire Guang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1787 Description An account of the resource Prior to the Enlightenment, the artistic style of Rococo dominated the art scene. However, during the Enlightenment it was constantly criticized for its excess embellishments. This led rise to Neoclassism where there was more of an emphasis on simplicity. This piece depicts the Greek philosopher Socrates’ last moments before his death. Socrates was found guilty being accused of corrupting the youth with his teachings, and as given the option of either renouncing his beliefs or drinking poison. In this scene we see him reach out for the cup of hemlock, while gesturing towards the heavens, implying his disagreement with the notion of a soul’s immortality. This piece is a great neoclassical statement as it portrays the themes of civic duty that neoclassic emphasized. During this time, the French Government replaced the religion of Christianity with “anti-clerical Secularism.” Because of this, people looked towards philosophers and those who displayed civic virtues for morals and values. Unlike previous periods in which morals and values were depicted through religious art and scripture, neoclassic art depicts the same concepts through the glorification of those who have showed such ideals. Instead of depicting a Christian martyr, we see the same message of martyrdom through the death of Socrates. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/436105 https://www.identifythisart.com/art-movements-styles/pre-modern-art/neoclassical-art-movement/ Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/495132b38f2b4dd592785136dad878ac.pdf f6582bb912032fc0300ef0ee24f7b766 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Early Modern Period in the Low Countries Essay Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Adam Smart Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 19, 2018 Description An account of the resource This is a longer essay which addresses the aims of my exhibit. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived N/A Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This work is free to use with attribution, as long as any modifications made are acknowledged as such. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/cf18f770954288934dda86a0a5d4ba0d.jpg 96f5e168b3a601587db3b3eaca0e38c0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cicero Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Moses Jehng Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Cicero (106-43 BC) Bust of Cicero (100 AD) Description An account of the resource A famed Roman statesman and philosopher, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) was known for both his contributions to politics via the Roman senate and his works on ethics, political philosophy, and rhetoric. Cicero was born into wealth and thus received a thorough education in Greece and Rome, and immediately embarked into the political life. His talent for oration quickly ensured his meteoric rise to the rank of praetor, delivering speeches both deliberative and judicial. In terms of his philosophy, Cicero was an avid scholar of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle. Their influence can be observed in his conception of ethics, Cicero having borrowed the foundations for his virtue theory from the three. In Cicero’s work De Officiis, his model of virtue is similar to that of Plato’s—consisting of justice, prudence/wisdom, temperance, and courage (Cicero, Book I) (Plato, Book IV). Likewise, Cicero shared the belief that a virtuous life was a prerequisite to a truly happy one. However, Cicero disagreed on the case of rhetoric. Rejecting Plato’s assertion that all rhetoric was mere pandering independent from knowledge of the relevant subject (Gorgias 453b-465e), Cicero declared that rhetoric was an intricate art requiring expertise in the topic. Furthermore, much like Aristotle, Cicero believed that rhetoric was necessary for the progression of society. While Plato portrayed rhetoric as inherently evil, Cicero presented the opposite, culminating in his representation of the “ideal orator” (De Oratore, Book I). The works of Cicero, along with Plato and Aristotle, composed a significant portion of Petrarch’s revival of classical literature (see item “Petrarch” in “Political Philosophy of Classical Antiquity”). Cicero’s relevance to Early Modern Europe arises not just in his philosophy, but in the latter half of his life. Having been a firsthand witness to the ascension of Julius Caesar, the transition from a republic to a dictatorship provoked a power struggle between the senate and Caesar—one emblematic of the later struggles between monarchs and parliament. Now a senator, Cicero saw Caesar’s initial ascension via his alliance—the First Triumvirate—as a threat to Roman democracy, declining to join in spite of Caesar’s invitation. From that point on, Cicero endeavored to alienate Caesar’s allies from one another and criticized Caesar, but did so to little avail. Eventually, facing pressure to do so, Cicero succumbed and joined the alliance. Following the civil war that established Caesar’s dictatorship (with Cicero opposing Caesar), Cicero reluctantly returned to the senate under pardon from Caesar. To Cicero, Caesar’s unlimited jurisdiction undermined the power of the senate and thus democracy. To Caesar, the senate was often an antagonist to exacting his will. Though not directly involved in Caesar’s later assassination, Cicero expressed his support, which in turn deteriorated his relationship with Mark Antony, Julius’ successor. Like his relationship with Julius, Cicero continued his history of antagonization. He would often deliver scathing critiques of Antony to the public, eventually convincing the senate to declare Antony an enemy of the state. Finally, Antony responded by listing Cicero as an enemy of the Triumvirate, resulting in Cicero’s assassination (Balsdon and Ferguson). Over a millennium later, the struggles between monarch and legislative body experienced by Cicero had become a recurring theme in the hybrid governments of Early Modern Europe (discussed in week six of HIST 139). Most notably, the antagonistic relationship between the monarchs of France and parlement resembled that of Cicero and Caesar/Antony. Throughout the reign of Louis XIV, parlement and the monarch were at odds due to competing policy interests, resulting in conflicts such as the Fronde, a violent revolt. Exhausting France’s finances via continuous war like his predecessors, King Louis XV turned to increased taxation as a means of replenishment. Parlement, however, opposed every single attempt made by the king to do so. Following a series of hostile exchanges, Louis XV dissolved parlement, resulting in a sharp rise in anonymous criticisms against him (Wiesner-Hanks, p. 329-32). Similarly, the relationship between Parliament and monarch in the reigns of England’s James VI and Charles I was fraught with discord. As with the French monarchs, James VI spent much of his country’s finances. Additionally, to raise funds, he would often attempt to circumvent Parliament, angering them. His career was marred with opposition to the Parliament, at one point illegitimately removing a page from Parliament’s Book of Commons to nullify their decision. His successor, Charles I, went as far as to attempt the arrest of five members of Parliament, with his career ending in civil war. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Balsdon, John, and John Ferguson. "Marcus Tullius Cicero." Encyclopedia Britannica.October 4, 2018. Accessed November 16, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. De Oratore. Edited by E. H. Warmington. Translated by E. W. Sutton. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Accessed November 16, 2018. https://archive.org/stream/cicerodeoratore01ciceuoft/cicerodeoratore01ciceuoft_djvu.txt. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. De Officiis. Translated by Walter Miller. New York, NY: MacMillan Company, 2014. September 29, 2014. Accessed November 16, 2018. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/47001/47001-h/47001-h.htm. Luiz, José. Bust of Cicero. September 24, 2016. Capitoline Museums, Rome. In Wikimedia. December 10, 2016. Accessed November 17, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bust_of_Cicero_(1st-cent._BC)_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg. Plato. Gorgias. Translated by Chris Emlyn-Jones and Walter Hamilton. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2004. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe 1450-1789. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Photo is Creative Commons https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/3aff85f1cfe03575af22d091f5905c62.jpg b259ebb3ba6f41ba04f512143739e0ef Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 151.1 cm by 109 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of King Charles III of Spain Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anton Raphael Mengs Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1765 Description An account of the resource Enlightenment ideals were not, on the surface at least, confined to just the leading intellectuals of the time. European monarchs began attaching themselves to Enlightenment principles and thinkers. For instance, the French philosopher Voltaire became a mentor to King Frederick II of Prussia (who became know, like many other Enlightened rules, as “the Great”) (Gordon 29). Enlightened despots, as these monarchs are known, were absolute monarchs who pursued reforms based on the values of the Enlightenment. The Spanish ruler most closely associated with the Enlightenment is King Charles III, who reigned from 1759 to 1788. There is plenty of historiographical debate, however, over whether or not he was a truly enlightened despot. R. R. Palmer, for instance, calls Charles III “one of the most celebrated and successful of the ‘enlightened despots’ “ (Palmer 299). Palmer says that while Charles III employed a “non-political” type of despotism (which is to say he did not seek conflict with the Spanish nobility), he had some success improving Spain’s economic and technological prospects while boosting governmental efficiency (Palmer 299). Jonathan Israel disagrees, however, boldly stating, “the deeply entrenched images of…Charles III of Spain…as ‘enlightened’ is assuredly one of the reasons the Enlightenment as a whole has acquired a bad name” (Israel 534). Israel questions enlightened despots’ commitment to Enlightenment values, noting that Charles III would disregard them when it most suited him. While Charles III did make economic reforms aimed at reducing barriers to trade, many of the actions taken by him and his government were done to solidify their power. Councils and local governments were replaced by ministers, changes that streamlined the king’s ability to govern. The Jesuits were also successfully expelled from Spain due to suspicions about their lack of loyalty to the crown (Lynch), again demonstrating the self-interest in pursuing Enlightenment causes. This information adds more weight to Israel’s argument that Charles III did not truly adopt the tenants of Enlightenment while governing. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Charles_III_of_Spain_high_resolution.jpg Gordon, Daniel, and Voltaire. Candide. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2016. Israel, Jonathan. "Enlightenment! Which Enlightenment?" Journal of the History of Ideas 67, no. 3 (2006): 523-45. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30141040. Lynch, John. "Charles III." Encyclopædia Britannica. January 26, 2010. Accessed November 19, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-III-king-of-Spain. Palmer, R. R., and David Armitage. "THE LIMITATIONS OF ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM." In The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800, 280-306. Princeton University Press, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hhrg5.17. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e8b7491fc57be6caa9a12cb719e1fff4.jpg 532199281a7eede85796aae894c444b0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Vindication of the Rights of Women Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mary Wollstonecraft Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Changlan Wang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1792 Description An account of the resource In A Vindication of the Rights of the Women, written by Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, Wollstonecraft responded to the thoughts of some education theorists who didn’t think women should receive proper education. She argued that by giving women proper education, and imparticuarly, educating them together with males starting at a young age, would allow them to reason and fulfile their peculiar duties (Wollstonecraft). Unless women are more educated and “Wollstonecraft responded to the thoughts of some education theorists who didn’t think women should receive proper education. She argued that by giving women proper education, and in particular, educating them together with males starting at a young age, would allow them to reason and fulfill their peculiar duties better (Wollstonecraft). Until women are more educated and “have more understanding, it is vain to expect them to possess domestic taste. Their lively senses will ever be at work to harden their hearts, and the emotions struck out of them will continue to be vivid and transitory, unless a proper education store their mind with knowledge” (Wollstonecraft.) Wollstonecraft also indicated that both sexes would benefit from the education that women received, since “after women being brought up with men, they are prepared to be their companions rather than their mistresses” and are more capable of carrying out their domestic duties. By permitting boys and girls to pursue the same studies together, “the graceful decencies might early be inculcated which produce modesty without those sexual distinctions that taint the mind” (Wollstonecraft). Wollstonecraft can be considered as a radical feminist during the Enlightenment. She rejected the gender role proposed by Rousseau and strongly promote the equality of men and women. However, because the larger social-historical context, such radical idea of coeducation would receive strong critiques and condemnation. She attempted to avoid this by compromising the education of girls after 9 years old to be separated from boys in the afternoon to be trained in “plain-work, mantua-making, millinery” (Wollstonecraft). However, it is undeniable that Wollstonecraft's theory contributed remarkably to the the rudimentary idea of gender equality in modern days. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Vindication1b.jpg. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain enlightenment Prominent Women https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/af0651fc26a2439e41f4ba67ee9893b1.jpeg 36fde1821d93a0fa51a8f3ddf3068b13 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Emile, or On Education Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jean-Jacques Rousseau Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Changlan Wang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1762 Description An account of the resource “The male is male only at certain moments; the female is female her whole life… everything constantly recalls her sex to her, and to fulfill its functions, an appropriate physical constitution is necessary to her… she needs a soft sedentary life to suckle her babies. How much care and tenderness does she need to hold her family together!... The rigid strictness of the duties owed by the sexes is not and cannot be the same.” ——Rousseau, Emile As the Enlightenment thinkers started to theorize about humanity in general, gender became an unavoidable topic. As anatomical studies on the human bodies developed, understanding about the foundational physical constitution between men and women had already widely gained recognition. Because of the physiological makeup of the reproductive system of women, there were an “increasing stress on women’s unique fitness for the role of wife and mother” (Outram, 83). In the contrast, the anatomical studies that argued that women had a smaller brain size compared to men “demonstrated their unfitness for intellectual pursuits” (Outram, 82). The difference in biological construct thus further led to the contrast of social identity between women and men, as Rousseau suggests in Emile. The softness of women that came along their nature to bring up children were increasingly being considered as femininity and they were viewed as “social glue” because they were able to “correct that rudeness which passion and pride introduce into the company of men (Taylor, 82). "Their delicate hand smoothes the asperities of life” (Taylor, 82). Women were considered as the civilizer of men and guardian of the society. At the same time, women were also the consumer of the society. The luxury that they acquired “had been depicted as a quintessentially feminine vice, with critics from Cato to Augustine to Montesquieu loud in their denunciations of female extravagance and indulgence” (Taylor, 79). While Voltaire could be considered as a representation of thinkers who agreed with the natural distinction between men and women, there were also radical Enlightenment thinker who “denounced misogyny barbaric and argued that traditional female vice —weakness, silliness, frivolity— were either male inventions or products of oppression” (Taylor, 83). Such radical thinking seemed to reconcile the central paradox in Enlightenment thinking about the inconsistent roles and ability of women. It also showed the rudiment of the modern gender equality thinking. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Emile, or On Education, 1762. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EmileTitle.jpeg. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain enlightenment Rousseau