15 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/d733d152f9b430aa90c17569b924c98b.jpg d95fb4f3c45ffea14cc789ff911cf62e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Westminster Abbey Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Original architect: unknown Drawing: Thomas Picken Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Maddie Gartland Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Originally built in 960. Rebuilt in 1517. Drawing: 1851 Description An account of the resource Westminster Abbey is certainly not a structure built during the Protestant Reformation, nor the English Reformations, but its history is inextricably entangled with Protestantism and Anglicanism, so it has earned its spot in this era. The original building was the first church in England built in the romanesque style; from about 1245 to 1517, construction on the current church was underway, and the current structure is largely Gothic ("History of..."). (The towers came later, in the 18th century.) During that period, the Abbey became the coronation site of Norman kings and often had some political influence due to its proximity to the Palace of Westminster. So, by the 16th century, Westminster Abbey was well established as an important site for the English monarchy ("History of..."). Then, of course, came Henry VIII, and the beginnings of the English Reformations, and the dissolution of the monasteries. Westminster Abbey is a peculiar case in this situation. While most of the dissolved and seized monasteries were either destroyed or left to waste away by Henry VIII, he chose to grant the Abbey the status of a cathedral, sparing it from destruction and ruin. This choice clarifies that he knew very well the Abbey's specific importance to the English crown and was unwilling to let it fall from grace (and usefulness) with all the rest of the monasteries in England. After ten or so years as a cathedral, the very Catholic Mary I came into the throne and restored Westminster Abbey to the Benedictines. This was reversed, of course, when her successor Elizabeth I took the throne, and in 1560 Elizabeth designated the Abbey a "Royal Peculiar" ("History of..."): a church of the Church of England that was directly under the sovereign, not responsible to a bishop (as would normally be the case). Westminster Abbey has since then continued to be the coronation site of every English monarch, and has also been the site of many royal weddings (largely since the early 20th century, but nonetheless). The fascinating history of Westminster Abbey, transformed by Protestantism's rise in England, thus saw it change functions very quickly and ultimately very permanently: from an abbey to a cathedral back to an abbey to a Protestant church to one of the most important churches in the Anglican religion. It is a prime example of how a shift in culture or politics can alter the entire purpose and function of a building. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Opactwo_Westminster_w_Londynie.jpg "History of Westminster Abbey." Westminster Abbey. Accessed September 28, 2018. https://www.westminster-abbey.org/about-the-abbey/history/history-of-westminster-abbey/ Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain; free re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/04dd74d1d67d6b98d2dc093a6a27474b.jpg 27510c677125e5b0764ee672a16f0b20 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Engraving Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 17 x 13 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fort Bourtange (Vesting Bourtange) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Matthäus Merian Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Brendan Glenn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource First built 1593, continually expanded until 1742. Engraving is of the fortress in its original state. Description An account of the resource Fort Bourtange (Vesting Bourtange in Dutch) is a textbook example of the “star fort” or “bastion” fortification type which grew to prominence in the later Renaissance. Construction began during the Dutch Revolt in 1580 under the orders of William of Orange, who wanted a fort on the road between the Spanish-held city of Groningen and the German border in order to prevent the Spanish from controlling the only easily-traveled route through what was otherwise marshy country. Due to its (at the time) modern design, which combined the traditional moats and ditches with a series of angular fortifications, Fort Bourtange was able to withstand an attack by Spanish forces soon after its completion in 1593. Over the next several centuries the fort was continually expanded and served as part of the Netherland’s network of border defenses, before it was eventually decommissioned in 1851. In 1960 the village on the site, facing depopulation and economic woes, restored the bastion to its appearance circa 1750 (Fort Bourtange, History of the Fortress). The existence of Fort Bourtange is testament to both the sad necessity of architecture in war as well as peacetime and to the technological advancements which had begun to occur at an accelerating pace during the Renaissance and which were put to deadly effect during the Wars of the Reformation. Due to the adoption and improvement of firearms, both handheld and artillery, in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, military engineers were forced to find ways to counter the new threat posed to their fortifications by the stone-shattering power of cannon as well as waves of shoddily-trained but numerous arquebusiers and, later, musketmen. The solution which Italian engineers developed was the star fort or bastion, a design which replaced the rounded turrets of medieval castles with pointed structures that served two purposes: first, they allowed attackers nowhere to hide from defenders’ fire by eliminating “blind spots,” placing every part of the exterior wall’s base within view of another section of the wall; and second, they forced cannon to be moved between two of the fort’s projections in order to line up a perpendicular shot at the wall, exposing the slow-moving siege engines and their crews to fire from multiple directions. The walls of these forts were also made shorter and thicker in order to further frustrate cannoneers. This new design rapidly spread from Italy to the rest of the continent, and was critical in several conflicts over the next centuries (Britannica, Bastion). Among these were, of course, the Wars of the Reformation, and indeed Fort Bourtange was built as part of the rebellion of the Protestant territories of the Netherlands against their Catholic overlords in Spain (Fort Bourtange, History of the Fortress). Even today, mainland Europe is littered with quaint villages built among old walls on star-shaped islands, the legacy of the many turmoils of the Early Modern period. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bourtange_1657_Merian.jpg Vesting Bourtange, Fortress: History, 2018. https://www.bourtange.nl/bezoekersinformatie/de-vesting Bastion, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/technology/bastion-fortification Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain; free re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/ad2dc7f3a0307297d1e242a542df7673.jpeg 68b7091a682d9b718126c14a40b99f0a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Peasants Mowing Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pietro de Crescenzi, translation by Jean Corbechon Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Zach Irvin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource c. 1478-1480 Description An account of the resource Written in 1302, Pietro de Crescenzi’s famous “Ruralia Commodia” offers a unique perspective on rural peasant life in the early modern era. This particular illustration depicting two peasant men mowing hay was included in the book’s first publication and was widely distributed throughout Europe as a sort of gardening and horticulture manual. In fact, Henry VIII was said to have a copy of this very book in his personal library (Carley, 292). The development of merchant capitalism brought sweeping changes to rural life across Europe. With it came a fundamental reorganization of capital distribution and ownership structures. As Merry Wiesner-Hanks put it, “any discussion of the European economy must begin in the countryside” (Wiesner-Hanks, 206). And, indeed, the end of serfdom in rural Europe fundamentally transformed ideas of private property and ownership and marked the beginning of capitalism as we know it. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Pietro de Crescenzi. Peasants Mowing, 1478-1480, The British Library. <a href="https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200397/BibliographicResource_3000126283275.html?q=peasants+mowing+">https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200397/BibliographicResource_3000126283275.html?q=peasants+mowing+</a> <br /><br />Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789. Cambridge University Press, 2006. <br /><br />Carley, James P. "The Libraries of King Henry VIII : An Update of the Westminster Inventory of 1542." The Library 16, no. 3 (2015): 282-303. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/28945b38ff747bedc0c72189ab967251.jpg 8a926c8c055689f29dac985174ae98a3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Die Medizin indes zu verachten ist nicht Dummheit, sondern Frevel By Melanchthon Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Phillip Melanchthon Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Jack Williams Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1497-1560 Description An account of the resource Any discussion on the impact of the Protestant reformation on the study of the body, and medicine as a whole, must begin with a discussion of Protestant education. Melanchthon, a contemporary and friend of Luther’s, is widely considered to be responsible for the reformation of Protestant education as a whole (Helm 84). As a professor at Wittenberg he was a key part of its transformation into a powerful educational landmark, as well as how its students studied the body and anatomy. One key difference at the time between Catholic and Protestant studies of anatomy and other sciences was the intended purpose of the education. For the Catholic anatomy was an old art, often studied theoretically, and only forced into more common use in the latter half of the 16th century (Helm 88). There it was commonly used as a method by which to train medical professionals, not often for other reasons. In the Protestant camp however, which was heavily influenced by Melanchthon’s emphasis on natural philosophy, the study of anatomy was seen as a way to understand an ordered world created by an ordered god. Melanchthon himself believed that all Christians should study anatomy, not just those planning to use it at some point in their lives. The outgrowth of this new Protestant education method was quick throughout Germany, and many universities took up the liberal arts model of Wittenberg, as well as its emphasis on the importance of anatomy (Helm 86. What is worth noting is that against what one might expect, religion still plays a major part in the discovery and teaching of medicine, Melanchthon believes it should be studied because “The whole world order is a wonderful theatre, in which God wants to be looked at, and he wishes that the obvious testimonies of his presence, his wisdom and his goodness will be considered here.” (Helm, other 55) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived http://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/07931/diglit_schosser1558.html?q=Melanchthon Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource CC BY SA https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/31fb1129bad100a779943fcbee544b74.jpg 9d97f49c73446c487313103bb2bead71 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Thomas More's Utopia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Thomas More Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cassidy Bins Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1516 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Photo: Wikimedia Commons More, Thomas. "Utopia." Project Gutenberg, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2130/2130-h/2130-h.htm. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe: 1450-1789. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain. Description An account of the resource In 1516, English humanist Thomas More published one of his most famous and controversial works, a novel called Utopia. In it, More described an independent, law-abiding community living on an island. His community was devoid of crime and disagreement, but it also barred freedom of expression in the form of rebellion. More went into painstaking detail describing the layout of the island, the professions of its citizens, the Magistrates they were ruled by, and the manner in which they lived. Of particular note is the way governance was established in More’s Utopia. A “Prince” still sat at the top of the hierarchy, but he was chosen via anonymous vote, with the basis of election resting on his merit as a leader (More). More also warned against the Prince and his immediate subordinates plotting against their people, and placed priority on the debate of issues in council prior to enactment. Whether or not the book was written as satire, it provided commentary on European politics of More’s time (Wiesner-Hanks, 141). As Europe moved from Renaissance to reformation, class divisions were established and inflexible. In More’s native England, peasants farmed the land of noblemen, with their yields tapped into by the crown. In Utopia, the residents of the island farmed for subsistence, wore the same clothes no matter their “rank,” and did not assign nearly as much value to money (More). Yet, there is still irony to the fact that More’s invented world required slave labor to function. Utopia was influential for two main reasons: one, it circulated as a veiled criticism of England’s, and by extension Europe’s, condition involving social class at the time of its writing; and two, it introduced the underpinnings of socialism/communism which would later take hold in European literature. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/69cc75230037c8e38619ce0872d9e830.jpg 7cec7ed8e175f63b0e8b7efb7f64c7f7 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Bound Book Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 30 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A book on the Eastern Travels of Marco Polo Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Marco Polo Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Juan Varela de Salamanca Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1518 Description An account of the resource During much of the period known as the Middle Ages, it has often been believed that Europeans focused inwards, foregoing a knowledge of the outside world in the harsh years of plague and religious intolerance. This misconception, however, greatly underestimates the importance of voyaging and trade during the late Middle Ages the and they ways in which they impacted the age of discoveries, led by the voyages of Italian Marco Polo, that was to follow in the early modern period. Prior to the Renaissance, trade routes crisscrossed much of the known world with merchants trading across ports in the Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean and even the South China Seas (Wiesner-Hanks, 241). These connections led to the strong international trade systems that characterized the early modern world, and the increased ability of Europe to facilitate much of this trade. The 1490s saw a rapid expansion in potential trade routes with Spain’s discovery of the Americas and Portugal’s rounding of the Cape of Good Hope. Not only did this open the entirely new realm of the New World for European exploration (and eventually exploitation), but also allowed Europeans to enter the Asian goods markets while cutting out the many middlemen that had previously been used for the long sea and land voyages that transported goods to Europe (Musgrave, 163). This is not to say that Europe had an equally important role in all trading areas during this period. While it is generally accepted that Europeans dominated commercial activity and trade in the Atlantic world, they were comparatively peripheral in the Asian markets and trade within the Indian Ocean until the 18th century (Wiesner-Hanks, 268). In Asia, merchants and companies directed trade, unlike governments in other parts of the world. This meant that the Europeans often had a weaker hand. This was compounded by the fact that Asia was characterized by very strong governments with sophisticated militaries that were often lacking in other parts of the world. Europeans also entered this market in a weaker position to trade. They were looking to trade in Asian luxury goods which were far superior to European manufactured goods during this time. Given this, and the fact that Europe had comparatively few natural resources, Europe was forced to pay for their goods in bullion imported from the Americas, which did not stimulate their economies in the way that traditional trade in goods might have (Musgrave, 169-172). All in all, despite the massive and rapid expansion in the realm of European trade, European domination was far less apparent than is commonly believed. In fact, it was not until the colonization of India and the partition of Africa in the 19th century that European economic preeminence in the world became firm. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/47a10ba9f12026bba8a29fc5756ea746.jpg f8bacbb3a1b7110c06bcf98330c538ae Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Utopia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sir Thomas More Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1518 Description An account of the resource Sir Thomas More’s Utopia is one of the most astounding, influential, and unique works of political satire and inquiry in early modern Europe. More, through the use of fictional prose, imagines an island, Utopia, where society has evolved greatly from his current one in 16th century England. In the novel, More learns about Utopia from a widely renowned explorer and discovers the political, social, and religious topography of this unknown and wildly idiosyncratic land. The island of Utopia, founded by General Utopus contains many aspects which foreshadow later developments in society and political ideology. One in particular stands out: the notion of a free government services, resembling later ideas present in socialist ideology. Hospitals and healthcare are free and available to all citizens of Utopia. Furthermore, many aspects of contemporary society are evident on the island, such as legality of divorce and tolerance (though limited and not societally enforced) of atheism. However; there are consequences to the idyllic lives of Utopians. For one, each household relies on at least one or two slaves, supplied by either outside countries or criminals within Utopia. Premarital sex is punished by a lifetime of strictly enforced chastity and marriage outside of sex is a highly criminal act, punished by slavery. By the end of the book, the fictional character parallel to More in reality concludes that the concepts of governance and society in Utopia are unrealistic and inapplicable to actual society, specifically his own, in England. Yet, he concludes that there are certain aspects to Utopian society that could be altered and incorporated in England. Sir Thomas More is keen in his use of fiction to make political commentaries and satire. It is an early use of such a platform to spread ideas which may be radical under a trivial guise. Ideas from Utopia would continue to circulate across Europe for centuries after its publishing, and strike strong comparisons to concepts of Socialism that would emerge in the 19th century, particularly Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’s Communist Manifesto, published in 1848. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Universitätsbibliothek Bielefeld [public domain], via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Utopia,_More,_1518_-_0020.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/0b0f6f5f340bd46c618c41ffa7affa13.jpg e9954b9c61dd7614e692367cfee8a2c3 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Engraving Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Not Available Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Heretics Burn-- The Spanish Inquisition Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bernard Picart Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Teddy Wolfe Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1673 Description An account of the resource In the wake of the Protestant Reformation, Spain didn’t develop a major Protestant sect. Instead, many Protestant ideas were erased from public consciousness by the Spanish Inquisition, which encouraged the censure of texts and the murder or imprisonment of any who challenged the existing Catholic authority. Protestants weren’t the only group punished, as Jews and Muslims were also mostly tortured, killed, or forcibly removed from the country in an effort to consolidate royal Catholic power. The goal of the Inquisition was to prevent uprisings through a system of fear, wherein any could be punished for challenging existing ideas (Wiesner-Hanks, 108). For instance, during the 18th century, prominent intellectuals were prevented from spreading the ideas of Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers throughout Spain because Spanish rulers feared they could lead to rebellion (Goodman, 377). These intellectuals hoped the ideas would help modernize the country, but Spanish rulers feared they could breed challenges to their authority, like in America and France (Goodman, 377). The executions, as seen in the engraving, were a large part of enforcing the Inquisition and generated large public support at the start. A lot of this related to economic fears about new Christians— or Jewish converts— taking jobs away from Old Christians (Wiesner-Hanks, 109). These fears took a long time to abate, as the Inquisition only moved towards ending following the Invasion of Napoleon’s forces in 1808, after lasting almost 400 years. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived “An Auto-Da-Fé of the Spanish Inquisition and the Execution of Sentences by Burning Heretics on the Stake in a Market Place. Engraving by B. Picart.” Europeana Collections. Accessed November 13, 2018. https://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/9200579/xwzjnmf8.html. Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks, "Politics and Power, 1450-1600" in Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 108-109 David Goodman, "Intellectual Life under the Spanish Inquisition: A Continuing Historical Controversy." History 90, no. 3 (299) (2005): 375-86. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24427884. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-Use Centralizing Power Inquisition Punishment spain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/b6d437e43e1a6f9e32fe0de79d8188b9.jpg d844f026bd9d25e144ae2c1341b16954 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Princeps Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Machiavelli, Niccolò Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1622 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Machiavelli, Niccolo. Princeps. 1622. Sumptibus Haeredum Lazari Zetneri. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Description An account of the resource Italian politics throughout the early modern period are a complex matter with city states constantly trying to gain more prestige and power. Throughout this constant power struggle, princes were adapting various political ideas to create a more efficient state. Many of these princes and other leaders throughout europe would rely on the teachings of Niccolo Machiavelli, a political revolutionary during the late 13th and early 14th centuries. His ideas would play a vital role in the foundation of political thought concerning the security of states. Both of these items, The Prince and The Florentine Histories provide valuable insight into the political ideas of Machieval and how they would eventually shape most of Europe. The Prince’s contributed significantly to political thought where various nobles such as Cesare Borigia, a powerful Italian prince, who helped set a precedence for Machiavelli’s political theory, by using “his own ruthlessness to build up a state in central Italy” (Wiesner Hanks 137). Other leaders such as Louis the XIV committed themselves to Machiavellian philosophy and use their power to encourage fear among the general populace and nobles. Machiavelli specifically mentions Ferdinand of Spain and uses him as an ideal image of a ruler, because he is able to maintain a strong political presence that helps stability to Spain (Machiavelli 132). This idea of a strong prince or authoritarian figure leading the state would persist throughout the early modern period and into the modern era. The Florentine Histories helped set about the beginning of modern historical documentation with his “devotion to facts” (Harvey Mansfield). Through these writings, Machiavelli established himself as a prominent political theoretician, but it was also an effort to try to stabilize the chaos of Italy and to regain favor with the Medicis. Machiavelli’s political ideas connect to the much broader extent of the Renaissance and the trend of important philosophical thoughts. Machiavelli political message supported the idea that states could be independent of the Vatican could use and state, which resulted in European states gaining more power, while diminishing the churches influence. Machiavelli did however still support the church and its mission for spreading Christianity, he viewed it more as more of a Princes responsibility to focus on. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/d0f7af1d118cfa55fe269eae4acf50b3.jpg c9ddcec30b3676dbb2056b0c86edff08 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ospedale degli Innocenti Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Kaan Taskintuna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1419 Description An account of the resource Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), one of the most prominent architects of early Renaissance, designed Ospedale degli Innocenti. The "Hospital of the Innocents" was built in mind for infants who had been abandoned by their parents and is one of the most notable examples of early Italian Renaissance architecture (Wiesner-Hanks 153). With Ospedale degli Innocenti, Brunelleschi meticulously sought to achieve balance and harmony. The design is a visual representation of the transition from the Byzantine Era to the Renaissance. The planning includes rounded arches, windows with equal proportions, detailed carvings of religious figures, and elements that are placed according to geometric and mathematical calculations. The height of the columns, for example, is the same length as the space between each column ("Arcade"). Besides being an important work of art, what makes this Brunelleschi's design with Ospedale degli Innocenti significant in the big picture is the fact that the cultural and artistic transition started finding its place in the lives of ordinary people. The return to classical antiquity was beginning to physically manifest itself in the built space of societies. References: "Arcade, Architecture." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. Early Modern Europe 1450-1789. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200369/webclient_DeliveryManager_pid_6349043_custom_att_2_simple_viewer.html?q=Ospedale+degli+Innocenti Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Filippo Brunelleschi Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Unrestricted online access (CC BY-SA 4.0) https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/37de022dcfea74d7f32af54ee93f68f2.jpg 5437e8494381e7868a843394fda6889f Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Illustration of Westminster Abbey Description An account of the resource Before beginning the discussion of education in Early Modern Europe, Medieval education should be examined. There was institutionalized education before the development of universities, but it took a very different form. In medieval Europe, the power and onus of education lay entirely in the hands of the church. The vast majority of the people who were literate in the early Middle Ages were members of the clergy, who were trained in basic Latin. Literacy and the breadth of education began to improve towards the end of the era, but it was still entirely under the wing of the Church. Monasteries like Westminster Abbey became centers of cultural and educational life. Noble families would send their children to monasteries for the purpose of obtaining an education (Wiesner-Hanks 35). Westminster Abbey itself has since become much more than a simple monastery, but it was founded c. 960 C.E. by Benedictine monks (“History of Westminster Abbey”). The monastery was expanded several times in the following centuries by English kings. By the 16th century, parishes began to take over as the main arm of education for religious institutions, establishing schools for local children and spreading basic literacy to a wider population (Wiesner-Hanks 130). Many monasteries found themselves converted into universities, offering a more rigorous mode of education for those who wished to pursue it. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Thomas Malton Jr. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1739 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Benjamin Wightman Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Westminster_AbbeyMalton1793.jpg https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/6541195885a37321fc9788de2b2cae60.jpg b382edb8e3fd9b15756e9e5a0da21db5 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Engraving of the Sorbonne Description An account of the resource This image is of the Sorbonne, a famous building constructed in 1257 as part of the University of Paris. The university was founded in the latter half of the 12th century, one of the first such institutions to be established in Europe (“University of Paris”). The powerful connection between education and the church (hyperlink to previous page!) remained in many ways, an explicit example being that the members of universities were technically considered clergy (Wiesner-Hanks 35). These universities were attended by the elite and cultivated a culture of scholars who could communicate and share ideas with others around the world, as they were all educated in Latin. The number of universities grew steadily, from fifteen or twenty in 1300 to more than fifty only two centuries later (Wiesner-Hanks 35). In <em>Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789</em> Merry Wiesner-Hanks provides a quote from a 1442 petition to establish a university that demonstrates some of the reasons that they flourished in this time (36). The petitioners highlight the amount of influence and fame that a university would bring in from around the world, and that it will not only develop the wit of their own citizens but attract strangers from other lands to share their own knowledge. The curriculum in these universities focused on “law, medicine, theology, and philosophy […] along with a more general curriculum—the ‘liberal arts’” (Wiesner-Hanks 35). As the Renaissance gained momentum, university teachers began to embrace humanistic education, which focused on the literature and history of the Greeks and Romans. Humanistic education and thought would propagate itself, and it did, becoming one of the defining characteristics of the Renaissance (Wiesner-Hanks 37). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Unknown (Engraving) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 17th Century Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Benjamin Wightman Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg