12 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/4c514e24961aab4eadc2854d51c02c57.jpg 78ac755b42a0fb2e95f493e32fb0d554 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/7e7cbf85efecc028354f0d2ed4535523.jpg 78ac755b42a0fb2e95f493e32fb0d554 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pilgrims at the Tomb of St Sebastian Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Josse Lieferinxe Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Jack Williams Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1492 Description An account of the resource This painting, by Josse Lieferinxe, was completed in 1497 and depicts a group of diseased and injured pilgrims visiting the tomb of St. Sebastian, the patron saint of soldiers and the plague-stricken. Lieferinxe was originally from the Southern Netherlands, and was identified by his pseudonym, The Master of St. Sebastian, until he was identified in 1942. His style was defined by the Provincial style originating in France where he spent the better part of his painting career (WGA 1). Most of Lieferinxe’s work focuses on faith stories and triumphant saints and angels. Only a few of his pieces focus on any form of everyday life, including this painting. The question this draws, is why would he choose to spend his time depicting such a sad scene? The answer seems to come from his devotion to St. Sebastian. While St. Sebastian may not be commonly known in modern times, during the late gothic and early Renaissance he was the most commonly depicted saint in paintings. This was caused by his role as the protector of those afflicted by the bubonic plague, a common worry during this time period. With this all taken into account, Lieferinxe’s depiction of the tomb, even without St. Sebastian being “physically” present, follows well with accepted theological traditions (Boeckl). It also follows accepted traditions involving healing and medicine. For the Early Modern peasant, disease and injury were often the random fact of life, and if a local healer couldn’t find a cure or method for healing any given ailment there was no other for healing than to hope for a miracle. Often times certain saints, like Sebastian, were associated with healing certain types of injuries, or types of people (Wiesner Hanks 167). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived "Pilgrims at the Tomb of St Sebastian by LIEFERINXE, Josse." Stigmatization of St Catherine of Siena by BECCAFUMI, Domenico. Accessed September 21, 2018. https://www.wga.hu/html/l/lieferin/sebasti1.html. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource TBC, Website says Ed use only https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/4717772a7e7037073430eb1bf4684f80.jpg 45e569330ef332154d9b35c5236849d5 Person An individual. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plato (Copy of Bust of Plato by Silanion) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Silanion (Original) Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Moses Jehng Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource (Bust) 370 BCE Description An account of the resource The bust (pictured above) depicts Plato. Regarded as one of the greatest thinkers of Classical Greece, the study of Plato and his works was prevalent throughout the Renaissance (one example can be seen in "The School of Athens," an item found in the collection "Political Developments and Diffusion in Early Modern Italy"). Unlike our perceptions regarding philosophers in the modern age, the philosophy of classical antiquity and the Renaissance also extended to science, mathematics, and more. Not much is known about Plato's early life. Later in life, however, he gained acclaim as a student of the philosopher Socrates. As Socrates did not write anything down himself, much of what history knows about him come from Plato's writings about him. Plato frequently wrote in the form of a dialogue, or a conversation, with Socrates as the protagonist. In these dialogues, one or more philosophical concepts would be explained or hinted at using a series of questions asked by Socrates to another person (though many do not arrive at concrete conclusions). Following Socrates' execution in 399 BCE (which would later give Plato a disdain for the judgement of the masses as it was democratically-decided), Plato opened a school of philosophy called the Academy. This would provide the basis for later educational institutions. During Plato's life, he would take on several students of his own, the most notable being Aristotle. It is unknown how Plato died, as there are many accounts (Meinwald). Plato introduces his own concept of morality, starting with virtue theory. Justice is one of them, along with temperance, prudence/wisdom, and courage. Justice to Plato is a type of harmonious living in which each person does their own role within society without infringing on others (specialization). On a personal level, it is a harmony of the soul based on intellectual pursuits and the exercise of temperance. Temperance is the restraint of vices. Prudence is the application of reason for good judgement. Courage is approaching problems without unnecessary fear (not cowardice but not foolhardiness either). Plato then proceeds to explain his theory of forms. In short, everything has an ideal form. Take a chair. According to Plato, there is an ideal chair; all chairs that exist on Earth share some qualities that make them chairs. The ideal chair is the embodiment of these qualities, the embodiment of the concept of "chair." Likewise, the greatest form is the form of good. To understand what is good and what good is, the philosopher must study it (The Republic, Book IV). The rebirth of these ideals, occurring prior to and in the Renaissance, manifested into the school of thought known as Platonism/Neo-Platonism (see item “‘Platonism’ from Diderot’s Encyclopedia” in “Political Philosophy of Classical Antiquity). Having been popularized by Petrarch during the Renaissance, the Platonic philosophy helped bridge the gap between to ideologically disparate time periods—pre- and post-Reformation (as discussed in week two of HIST 139). Despite his harsh condemnation of the Catholic Church, Martin Luther still retained Platonic values such as a focus on the soul and aesthetics (Mattes). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived De Jaucourt, Louis. "Platonism." Encyclopédie. Compiled by Denis Diderot. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://xn--encyclopdie-ibb.eu/index.php/science/1111734492-philosophie/975165967-PLATONISM. Mattes, Mark. "Martin Luther’s Theological Aesthetics." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Accessed November 14, 2018. http://religion.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-350. Nguyen, Marie-Lan. Plato (Copy of Silanion). 370 bc. Wikimedia, Capitoline Museums, Rome. In Wikimedia. September 16, 2009. Accessed November 15, 2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg. Plato. The Republic. Translated by Richard W. Sterling and William C. Scott. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/8a0470f3d8354df3ade1e6e9d80b8d32.png 5c3da92b3db0351e9371fc3b24fb8ac0 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Politics Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Aristotle Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Moses Jehng Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 350 BCE Description An account of the resource Authored by Plato’s student Aristotle, Politics is a collection of writings on different political constitutions (though we have a conception of a constitution as a written document, “political constitution” as used by Aristotle is synonymous with “type of government”). Like Plato’s The Republic, Aristotle’s Politics outlines a number of different political constitutions. He proposes the existence of six types of government, three good (monarchy, aristocracy, and polity) and three bad (tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy). Each good constitution has a bad counterpart. During his comparison of polity and democracy (two types of government where the many rule), the difference he points out lays the foundation for future English government—a set of sovereign laws. Sovereign laws are rules that no one is above (a concept later called “rule of law”) and tend not to change unless necessary (Aristotle says that sovereign laws should ideally not change to anchor people to morality, but accepts that sometimes it is warranted). Unlike The Republic, Aristotle does not believe monarchy (called “aristocracy” by Plato) to be the best system, as he states it is not realistically achievable. To find a ruler that exceptional, he believes, is impossible. Similarly, finding a virtuous elite as with aristocracy is difficult. Should one manage it, this superhuman will likely not want to manage a city of lesser beings, nor would they perhaps be bound by our sense of morality. Also, confining rulership to one or few people makes corruption likely (since no one can do anything if the ruler(s) becomes corrupt), and the chances of a larger group making poor judgement is less. Instead, he says polity (rule of the middle class, as they do not oppress the poor as the rich do or resent the rich as the poor do) is the best achievable one (Aristotle, Book II). Aristotle also emphasizes the importance of commerce within Politics. In proposing the ideal city, he suggests that it be located by the sea to facilitate maritime trade. In doing so, the city can be provided with the resources necessary to thrive—however, he does qualify that such the benefits of such trade should be treated with moderation. Furthermore, Aristotle argues that a port can also serve militaristic purposes, allowing a city to defend itself and deter attacks through the presence of a navy. Discussed in weeks seven and eight of HIST 139, the value of maritime commerce and naval presence becomes apparent between the 17th and 18th centuries. England thrived due to its strong navy and connections with the Americas (in addition to its industrialization). The Dutch rose to prominence via the establishing of vast trade networks across Europe. Venice and the Ottoman Empire dominated the Mediterranean Sea, reaping benefits from pillaging and trade. Conversely, countries like France suffered in the Mediterranean as few cities were located on the coast (the opposite of what Aristotle recommended), thus limiting their stake in Mediterranean trade (Wiesner-Hanks, p. 484-526). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Aristotle. Politics. Translated by Carnes Lord, 2nd ed., The University of Chicago Press, 2013. Greek Manuscript of Aristotle's Politics. 1493. Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III, Naples. In Wikimedia. By Franz Steffens. January 26, 2008. Accessed November 17, 2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Greek_manuscript_minuscule_Aristotle.png. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe 1450-1789. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource (Translation) All Rights Reserved https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/f483070e4a83edc8f1759dab9e5c6f04.jpeg 9be27ddcb385a31e7fbfacc2677c1fbe Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pope Julius III (formerly entitled Pope Paul III) | Sicciolante, Girolamo Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource J.W.E. vom Rath Bequest Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Pope Julius III short reign (1550-1555) as pope, would result in the development of the Catholic Reformation. Early in his leadership of the church, he faced the “infectious” spread of protestantism as well as corruption of religious orders (Wiesner Hanks 187). which he tried his best to fix. In order to combat these troubles he continued the tactics of Pope Paul III, “he appointed reform minded cardinals, abbots, and bishops who improved education for the clergy, tried to enforce moral standards among them” while also repermanding significant abuses (Wiesner Hanks 187). In addition to this change of leadership, he continued The Council of Trent (1545-1563) where new debates about the dogma of Communion as well as plans for new reformation decrees (Kirsch). Many royal delegations attended the council, including King Ferdinand and Henry II of France, which shows how important it was to state rulers. Protestants were also promised safe passage to the council, so they could participate and possibly reconcile with the church (Kirsch). Pope Julius III work with reforming the Catholic church contributed to the greater Catholic Reformation, which was trying to resolve problems pointed out both by the Protestants, but also to address religious controversies or deeply domatic subjects. This trend of Popes trying to reform the Catholic church, emphasizes the deeply political nature of church, but also the time period. These reforms would have a tremendous impact on the political stability of Europe, by energizing Catholics and creating a tremendous amount of infrastructure, which would transform the lives of the common man in the early modern time period (Wiesner Hanks 192). It also emphasizes the deep political impact the Protestant Reformation had on Europe to elicit such a massive response from the church. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1550-1600 Description An account of the resource The painting uses oil paint applied on canvas. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Bequest, J. Pope Julius III (formerly Entitled Pope Paul III) | Sicciolante, Girolamo. 1550-1600. Rijksmuseum, Netherlands. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/082daa85ca3ef9ac12d6526b79f41fd3.jpg 983a1e1fb0eda6311ec0a5bc38cc147b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Clement IX Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gerard Edelinck (1640-1677) Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Matthew Walsh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource c. 1666-1668 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Portret van paus Clemens IX, Gerard Edelinck, 1666 - 1668, from Rijksmuseum. Original image <a href="https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/collectie/RP-P-BI-7480" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain, with full license available <a href="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Description An account of the resource The papacy of Clement IX lasted only thirty months, from the summer of 1667 to December 1669. His papacy is primarily remembered if at all for a truce of sorts in the Jansenist controversy, discussed later in this exhibit, but Clement IX was also active in the less spiritual elements of the papal office throughout the Early Modern period, serving as head of state of the Papal States, as well as a leading political ruler in Europe at a time of constant warfare and fighting across the continent. Yet Clement IX is not remembered as a “Warrior Pope” like Julius II of the sixteenth century; his involvement with this century of wars comes as a peacemaker. The War of Devolution between France and Spain (with support from a Triple Alliance of the Dutch Republic, England, and Sweden) started weeks before Guilio Rospigliosi became Clement IX, and a year later the Bishop of Rome was chosen to mediate the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle between the two sides. Voltaire, hardly the papacy’s most enthusiastic cheerleader, noted that the pope served as a figure trusted to bring peace, although he characteristically claimed in the next paragraph the “Court of Rome… left no means untried to gain the honor of being arbitrator… in order to hide its weakness under an appearance of power” (Voltaire, 114). The short reign of Clement IX thus illustrates the papacy’s continued relevance in European political life through the seventeenth century. It further shows the unity the papacy could bring amongst Catholic nations, along with division and schism. Finally, it shows that this authority was hardly predicated on the individual worth or longevity of any other pontiff. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e6f53205af77e5a6215b9fb3d3be5e5d.jpg 38caf4ebd044486b21e6609ba81c40db Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 39 cm x 27.1 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Desiderius Erasmus | Massijs, Quinten (I) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Quinten Massijs Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1535 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <a href="https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/90402/SK_A_166">https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/90402/SK_A_166</a> Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This work is in the Public Domain. Description An account of the resource This painting of Desiderius Erasmus captures the character of the Dutch humanist writer and demonstrates the strong humanist presence in the Low Countries. Erasmus situated himself in a central position in the intellectual world of the Renaissance. Merry Wiesner-Hanks declares outright that Erasmus was “the most famous scholar of his time in all of Europe” (Wiesner-Hanks 141). Erasmus fashioned a distinct image for himself through his writings and even through paintings such as this one. St. Jerome served as the inspiration for these depictions of Erasmus (Jardine 4), which shows how Erasmus wanted to be viewed in his time: as a scholarly man and prolific writer concerned with theology and spirituality. In connection to this inspiration from St. Jerome, Erasmus was a Christian humanist thinker. He translated and compiled many religious works, including a translation of the New Testament into Latin, and wrote many other works and letters that addressed his ideas on Christian living. Erasmus placed a higher value in the spiritual individual and connection to the Gospels over physical representations of holiness such as relics. He also constructed a circle of other Christian humanist thinkers such as Thomas More, Juan Luis Vives, and Lèfevre d’Etaples, with whom he communicated and debated through numerous letters (Wiesner-Hanks 141). This strain of humanist thought focused on religious reform can be seen as a precursor to later Protestant and Catholic reform movements (Wiesner-Hanks 143). A key location in Erasmus's life was Louvain, a city in the Low Countries. The scholars located in Louvain criticized many of the Christian humanist ideas espoused by Erasmus. Historian Erika Rummel relates that Erasmus eventually moved to Louvain partly in order to "keep his critics in check" (Rummel 3). Erasmus also promoted other members in humanist circles, such as Juan Luis Vives, while in Louvain (Jardine 17). Through this example one can see that Erasmus was not only of Dutch heritage, but also engaged in the geographic location of the Low Countries. Alongside his presence in the Low Countries, Erasmus’s influence flourished in other areas of Europe, such as England, where his ideas contributed to the English Reformation (Jardine 12), and Spain, where Erasmus enjoyed immense popularity among intellectuals and members of the Spanish court during the 1520s (Elliot 151-152). Ultimately, Erasmus occupied both a important position locally and internationally in the intellectual world of his time. Works Cited Elliot, J.H. Imperial Spain 1469-1716, 151-152. London, Edward Arnold Ltd., 1963. Jardine, Lisa. Erasmus, Man of Letters : The Construction of Charisma in Print. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015. Accessed November 15, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central. Rummel, Erika. "ERASMUS AND THE LOUVAIN THEOLOGIANS — A STRATEGY OF DEFENSE." Nederlands Archief Voor Kerkgeschiedenis / Dutch Review of Church History 70, no. 1 (1990): 2-12. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24009249. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. “Cultural and intellectual life, 1450-1600.” In Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789, 141-143. Cambridge University Press, 2013. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/3f5a4c87e54b74e7aa52904854cc47d0.jpg 5a487239b888225afc6de4ec760bf71f Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Height: 72.8 cm Width: 60.4 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Emperor Maximilian and his Family Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bernhard Strigel Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Andrew Fitch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Approximately 1515 Description An account of the resource While strategic marriages for either resources or power have always been present in European history, their importance during the renaissance cannot be understated. The marriages of Maximilian the I (top left) and subsequent marriages that he planned for his children exemplify this as they immensely expanded Habsburg influence in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe as a whole. This ambitious expansion of Habsburg power also ties into renaissance political beliefs, namely a shift in the balance of power from the Catholic Church to secular rulers. In the past secular rulers were always answerable to the pope. However, as time progressed, secular rulers more frequently put their own powers above those of the Catholic Church and people tended to view secular governments as having more political authority (Wiesner-Hanks 135). Therefore, Maximillian's ambitious and strategic attempts to expand his power can also be viewed through the lens of a ruler working to gain greater autonomy from the pope. The first major growth in Habsburg holdings was a result of Maximilian’s arranged marriage to Mary of Burgundy (top right) which, through Mary’s lack of brothers, resulted in Maximilian's heirs inheriting Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Burgundy (Skjelver and Wiesflecker). Maximilian continued the trend of strategic and powerful marriages by having both his son, Philip (top middle), and his daughter, Margaret, marry children of the king and queen of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella (Skjelver and Wiesflecker). With the death of Margaret's husband John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, Charles the V (bottom middle), the son of Philip and his wife Joanna and grandson of Maximilian, became the next in line to inherit the Spanish throne (Skjelver and Wiesflecker). So it came to be that Holy Roman Emperor Charles the V would end up inheriting all of the Hapsburg lands in addition to the Spanish throne, which effectively meant that he was ruling about half of Europe in addition to Spanish holdings in the Americas. The immense power and wealth the Hapsburgs gained through their strategic marriages helped them to continue their dynasty in the Holy Roman Empire until its collapse in the early 1800s. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor#/media/File:Bernhard_Strigel_003b.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/68fa359a87e0f5aeffb3e30cc3f31593.jpg ea2679a43a6f449fef3fa2c09675d8e1 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Erasmus Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1535 Description An account of the resource After 1450, humanism began to spread from its roots in Florence -- long regarded as a hub for scholars -- to Vienna, Heidelberg, and the royal seats of England, France, and Spain (Wiesner-Hanks, 140). Scholars traveled all over Europe, carrying their ideas with them, but more permanent humanist academies and social groups were also established. Desiderius Erasmus, a prominent humanist with an appreciation for Plato and the classics, saw his works circulate throughout Europe in this fashion. Though Erasmus hailed from the Netherlands, his works were an important influence on English thinking during the Renaissance. One of these traceable links involves English humanist Thomas More, with whom Erasmus regularly corresponded. Wiesner-Hanks asserts that at the height of the humanist movement, travel to Italy was unnecessary because up-and-coming scholars such as More could learn about the classics in their home countries. This lends some sense of scope to the humanist movement during More’s lifetime, which spanned from 1478 to 1535 (Wiesner-Hanks, 141). Due in part to the invention of the printing press and the machination of humanist writers themselves, the basic tenets of humanism (the emphasis on revisiting the classics, revising political theory, and propagating the liberal arts in education) were able to cross country borders. More learned Latin without leaving his home country but saw his works circulated outside of it, as Erasmus did (Wiesner-Hanks, 141). Now regarded as one of the most well-known English humanists, his 1516 novel Utopia speaks to this very philosophy in its questioning of political theory and satiric undertones. More’s position relative to the “center” of humanist action at the time is a testament to the spread of ideas. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Photo: Rijksmuseum (https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/collectie/SK-A-166) Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe: 1450-1789. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cassidy Bins https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/3aff85f1cfe03575af22d091f5905c62.jpg b259ebb3ba6f41ba04f512143739e0ef Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 151.1 cm by 109 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of King Charles III of Spain Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anton Raphael Mengs Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1765 Description An account of the resource Enlightenment ideals were not, on the surface at least, confined to just the leading intellectuals of the time. European monarchs began attaching themselves to Enlightenment principles and thinkers. For instance, the French philosopher Voltaire became a mentor to King Frederick II of Prussia (who became know, like many other Enlightened rules, as “the Great”) (Gordon 29). Enlightened despots, as these monarchs are known, were absolute monarchs who pursued reforms based on the values of the Enlightenment. The Spanish ruler most closely associated with the Enlightenment is King Charles III, who reigned from 1759 to 1788. There is plenty of historiographical debate, however, over whether or not he was a truly enlightened despot. R. R. Palmer, for instance, calls Charles III “one of the most celebrated and successful of the ‘enlightened despots’ “ (Palmer 299). Palmer says that while Charles III employed a “non-political” type of despotism (which is to say he did not seek conflict with the Spanish nobility), he had some success improving Spain’s economic and technological prospects while boosting governmental efficiency (Palmer 299). Jonathan Israel disagrees, however, boldly stating, “the deeply entrenched images of…Charles III of Spain…as ‘enlightened’ is assuredly one of the reasons the Enlightenment as a whole has acquired a bad name” (Israel 534). Israel questions enlightened despots’ commitment to Enlightenment values, noting that Charles III would disregard them when it most suited him. While Charles III did make economic reforms aimed at reducing barriers to trade, many of the actions taken by him and his government were done to solidify their power. Councils and local governments were replaced by ministers, changes that streamlined the king’s ability to govern. The Jesuits were also successfully expelled from Spain due to suspicions about their lack of loyalty to the crown (Lynch), again demonstrating the self-interest in pursuing Enlightenment causes. This information adds more weight to Israel’s argument that Charles III did not truly adopt the tenants of Enlightenment while governing. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Charles_III_of_Spain_high_resolution.jpg Gordon, Daniel, and Voltaire. Candide. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2016. Israel, Jonathan. "Enlightenment! Which Enlightenment?" Journal of the History of Ideas 67, no. 3 (2006): 523-45. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30141040. Lynch, John. "Charles III." Encyclopædia Britannica. January 26, 2010. Accessed November 19, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-III-king-of-Spain. Palmer, R. R., and David Armitage. "THE LIMITATIONS OF ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM." In The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800, 280-306. Princeton University Press, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hhrg5.17. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/a23164388b7d584b0bbcb1faa1dd55a8.jpg 86af04db21f39d7d03225599c081fb6d Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Louis XIV Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hyacinthe Rigaud Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1702 Description An account of the resource Hyacinthe Rigaud’s “Portrait of Louis XIV” serves as an idyllic artistic illustration of the mechanisms of Absolutism which Louis XIV established in France. The monarch, who was well into his sixties during the time of this portrait, is depicted in the classic style of an Absolutist ruler. His robes are accessorized with gold "Fleur de Lis" crests, symbolic of the French monarchy and nation. A golden sword is slung by his waist, representing his control over the military and the scepter in his right-hand serves as yet another reminder of his power over France, with another "Fleur de Lis" on the bottom edge of it. During his reign, Louis XIV made every effort to create a centralized government with an intricate bureaucracy revolving around himself. He had moved the royal palace from within Paris to just outside of it, at Versailles. The palace housed many of the bureaucrats who served him as well as institutions for the arts, such as an opera. Louis XIV wanted all of his constituents to understand that all matters involving the state were centralized around him, including the government, the military, and patronage of the arts. Absolutism was a widely developing concept in Europe by this time. Many distinct features of Absolutism had been outlined and upheld in Thomas Hobbes’s “Leviathan,” in which Hobbes ultimately theorized that the best form of government is one which is unified and substantially centralized around an Absolute monarch. Louis XIV nearly perfectly represents the type of ruler which Hobbes would argue: strengthens the state and the well-being of the nation through Absolutism. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Musée du Louvre via Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hyacinthe_Rigaud_-_Louis_XIV,_roi_de_France_(1638-1715)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/0e687b667ba0786e8b3a6c19ebd1988d.jpg a2ac0f9513f2b77df8517db7ca5f0dfb Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data copper engraving Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of Menasseh Ben Israel (1604-1657) rabbi, philosopher and printer. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Salomo d’Italia Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1642 Description An account of the resource Menasseh ben Israel, a Sephardic Jewish rabbi from Amsterdam, embodies aspects of the religious environment of the Dutch Republic during the 17th century. Throughout the 17th century, Jewish communities from both Iberia (Sephardic) and Germany immigrated to cities like Amsterdam, (Israel 1995, 657-658) and contributed to the intellectual and economic worlds of the Dutch Republic. Menasseh ben Israel serves as an example of this intellectual participation. He wrote texts which discussed the Bible, and actively debated with Christians. These debates brought on struggle, however, as many Christian thinkers were only really concerned with converting the Jewish communities instead of debating religious concepts (Israel 1995, 580-581). The fact that these debates and publications occurred, albeit with cultural friction, is a testament to growing tolerance in the Dutch Republic. Another aspect of the Dutch religious climate involved the influence of English Quakers, which also interacted with Menasseh ben Israel and other Dutch and Jewish intellectuals such as Spinoza. Margaret Fell, a leading member of the Quakers, published an open letter directed at Menasseh ben Israel in an attempt to convert the Jewish community to Christianity (Popkin 18). The Quakers also interacted with Spinoza, who translated some of their works into Hebrew while in Amsterdam (Popkin 15). Another Quaker, Benjamin Furly, settled in the city of Rotterdam and prepared migrations to North America while also engaging in Enlightenment debates with a wide variety of thinkers (Laborie 359-360). Through figures such as Spinoza and Furly, the Enlightenment, Dutch religious tolerance, and the growing Jewish communities in the Netherlands are all linked. Works Cited Israel, Jonathan, The Dutch Republic. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. Laborie, Lionel, “Radical tolerance in early enlightenment Europe.” History of European Ideas 43, no. 4 (2017): 359-375. doi: 10.1080/01916599.2016.1203600 Popkin, Richard H. “Spinoza’s Relations with the Quakers in Amsterdam.” Quaker History 73, no. 1 (Spring 1984): 14-28. doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/qkh.1984.0016">10.1353/qkh.1984.0016</a> Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Menasseh_ben_Israel_1642.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is in the Public Domain. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/04b9bdb846050dd63f0e1a45bc450562.jpg 215cb9c351914d36e6c27d589127816c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portrait of The Honourable Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Frederic Kerseboom Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Zach Irvin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1689 Description An account of the resource Released in 1689, this engraving of Robert Boyle (1627-1691) presents a portrait of one of the great natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution. Widely considered to be the first modern chemist, Boyle contributed to the understanding of air pressure and vacuums as he and Robert Hooke developed the famous air pump during their time in Oxford. Boyle is to be understood as one member of a growing academy of natural philosophers of 16th and 17th century Europe. Their work, now understood to be the arrival of modern science, produced a body of knowledge that radically transformed the understanding of the natural world and one’s place within it. With it came new technological inventions that were direct applications of this new knowledge. Though rudimentary, these inventions would become the building blocks for the development of industry in Europe, putting nations on a trajectory for an increasingly integrated economic landscape that is characterized by trade and manufacturing. In fact, it was Boyle's contributions to fluid dynamics that paved the way for James Watts and the invention of steam engine a century later (Thurston, 446). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Frederic Kerseboom. Portrait of The Honourable Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691). Engraving, Wellcome Collection. <a href="https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200579/zbnmngaj.html?q=Portrait+of+The+Honourable+Robert+Boyle">https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/9200579/zbnmngaj.html?q=Portrait+of+The+Honourable+Robert+Boyle</a> Thurston, Robert H. History of the Growth of the Steam-Engine. Project Gutenberg, 2011. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Use CC BY