12 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e8ca23395bf3ff2b8e9b68eefe6c76a4.jpg fb4ad23264cfc522c4fd0009e5e83033 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Leviathan [or The Matter, Form and Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiastical and Civil] Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Thomas Hobbes Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1651 Description An account of the resource In Thomas Hobbes’s “Leviathan,” he draws out a widespread system of politics and governance based around the idea of a social contract between the public of a state and their sovereign or ruler. Hobbes argues for an absolute monarchy backed by strongly unified government. Leviathan is seen by historians as the earliest work of social contract theory, a major aspect of the development of political theory, especially in the enlightenment era that would ensue. The front-piece of the book displayed in the image grandly depicts a sovereign with a sword in one hand and a crosier in the other, a testament to the “absolute” or all-encompassing nature of the sovereigns rule. Additionally, the figure is built up of hundreds of small human figures, none of which have visible facial features, which represent the general population of the ruler’s state. These details reinforce the message behind the social contract which Hobbes discusses throughout Leviathan, specifically that the collective public of the state unconditionally support their monarch and in return the monarch rules effectively, promotes state welfare, and keeps the state secure and stable. Finally, Hobbes draws significantly from developments in the Scientific Revolution in articulating his argument. He forms his arguments in the manner of a geometric proof, building on each point using known truths in an effort to reach a final conclusion. Geometric themes are even present in the front-piece, which uses geometrically determined proportions and perspective. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ttitelblatt_1750_Leviathan_Thomas_Hobbs.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/00b16f122aec4678abced62bbf02300b.jpg 6507f8c141f97c0a71c3f3a11c1cb3ed Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Francis Bacon's The Advancement of Learning Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Francis Bacon Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cassidy Bins Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1605 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Francis_Bacon_Advancement_of_Learning_1674.jpg) Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe: 1450-1789. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public domain. Description An account of the resource Francis Bacon was a natural philosopher from England who introduced the scientific method through two publications, The Advancement of Learning and Novum Organum. To him, the basis of natural philosophy could be found in observation (Wiesner-Hanks, 374). His scientific method involved the formulation of a hypothesis, multiple tests, and the establishment of a conclusion that would then be repeatedly tested. Bacon’s life and work demonstrate the nonlinear development of science during the Scientific Revolution. Bacon was still a champion of alchemy, and many of his colleagues thought as he did. However, the shift from alchemy to chemistry came gradually, as “by the eighteenth century, those who experimented on the natural world tended to define forces or substances they could not see in material rather than spiritual or mystical terms” (Wiesner-Hanks, 375). Certainly, while Bacon’s alchemical ideas did not stand the test of time, his scientific method did. One common theme of the Scientific Revolution was the idea that science could be used to benefit society, and thus deserved funding directly from the monarchy. Bacon took this stance, as did Antoine Lavoisier, a chemist who performed many of his experiments on topics he thought would better serve the populace, such as agriculture and the military (Wiesner-Hanks, 375). In this way, the underpinnings of Bacon’s literature developed throughout the late 1700s, and natural philosophy made way for science as we understand it with the further development of the scientific method. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e1357fdc92d8ae9e7db027e5f9737434.jpg 763bf3a55fd5c914b10ce2f76ec5b555 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Engraving Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early depiction of a ‘dutch telescope’ Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Adriaen van de Venne Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Adam Smart Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1624 Description An account of the resource The development of the earliest telescopes is the source of some debate among historians, as numerous individuals claimed to be the inventors of the telescope. The Low Countries and Italy both emerge as potential locations for its invention, and numerous individuals claimed to have conceived of the invention or pursued patents. Hans Lippershey first applied for a patent for the telescope in the Netherlands in 1608, but the patent was denied as the patent office had identified others capable of making similar devices (van Helden 20-21). Conceptually, the telescope appeared it Italy in the writings of Giovanni Battista della Porta, who claimed to have invented the device first after hearing of Galileo’s successes with his telescope (Freedberg 101). Galileo acknowledged the primacy of an unnamed Dutch inventor in developing a telescope, but also declared he had invented the telescope, contrasting his invention as an enlightened development against a Dutch accident while making glasses (Rosen 305-306). Historian Albert van Helden approaches the declaration of a sole inventor cautiously, declaring that “the telescope was not invented, so to speak, ex nihilo” (van Helden 24). In other words, the telescope did not suddenly appear as a new invention, but instead emerged from a much larger history of lens-making and optics. Van Helden restates the question of “Who invented the telescope?” as “who first realized that such a device could be used for another purpose and set about adapting and improving it in order to obtain the greatest magnification possible?” (van Helden 24-25). This approach to analyzing the development of the telescope acknowledges the process as ingrained in the wider context of optical developments. Historian Engel Sluiter, alternatively, approaches the invention of the telescope as a development that began with Lippershey’s invention and attributed the source to the Low Countries alone, stating “its dispersion was entirely from the Low Countries outward” (Sluiter 228). Sluiter divides the development of the telescope into “phases,” where the first phase spans its “invention to dispersion over Europe,” and ends with Galileo’s use of the telescope (Sluiter 223). This interpretation characterizes the development of the telescope as a more revolutionary event that initiated a phase of rapid dispersion and innovation. While Sluiter’s interpretation aligns more neatly with the perceived speed at which the telescope was spread across Europe (which Sluiter himself tracks in detail), van Helden’s wider look at the intellectual and practical roots of the development of the telescope supports and acknowledges the complexity in even identifying a singular inventor of the device. Works Cited Freedberg, David. “The Telescope: Imperfection in the Heavens.” The Eye of the Lynx.101-117. University of Chicago Press, 2002. Rosen, Edward. "Did Galileo Claim He Invented the Telescope?" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 98, no. 5 (1954): 304-12. <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3143908">http://www.jstor.org/stable/3143908</a>. Sluiter, Engel. “The Telescope Before Galileo.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 28, no. 3 (1997): 223-234. doi:10.1177/002182869702800302. Van Helden, Albert. "The Invention of the Telescope." Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 67, no. 4 (1977): 1-67. doi:10.2307/1006276. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emblemata_1624.jpg">https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emblemata_1624.jpg</a> Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This item is in the public domain. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/17b5e80b95290254fc4225dd904fd2eb.jpeg a6bad5acbb043020c780b8f213847a72 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 300 cm x 600 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource First Tribute to Columbus Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jose Ganrnelo y Alda Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1892 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/2022704/lod_oai_bibliotecavirtualdefensa_es_40808_ent1.html?q=christopher+columbus Mar-Molinero, Clare. The politics of language in the Spanish-speaking world: from colonization to globalization. Routledge, 2002. Restall, Matthew, Seven Myths of Spanish Conquest. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003. Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de, “Just War in the Indies (ca. 1547)” in Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History, ed. Jon Cowans. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use Description An account of the resource Throughout human history, great discoveries have commonly been made by accident. Despite popular mythology, this principle applies to Christopher Columbus’ initial voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. Although the notion that the Earth was round was not revolutionary at the time, Columbus’ miscalculations regarding the planet’s size led him to believe that Asia was far closer to Europe than it actually is (Restall 7). Instead of perishing as a result of his error, however, Columbus encountered a vast landmass unknown to his contemporaries and full of unidentified inhabitants. The Spaniards who followed Columbus to the New World brought their desires to both convert the native population to Christianity and accrue wealth for themselves and their monarchs. The conquest of the Americas gave Spain access to the natural resources on the continents, people that could be used as workers, and, eventually, profitable trade routes (Mar-Molinero 27). From a religious standpoint, the conquest could be justified since the spread of Christianity would end the “wicked crimes” committed by the indigenous population, which would lead to their salvation (Cowans 62). The Spanish cultural perspective of colonization is demonstrated by the painting First Tribute to Columbus, which depicts the triumphant arrival of the explorer to the New World. In the foreground is Columbus himself, but directly behind him are a towering wooden cross and the flag of Castile and Leon. The prominence of these objects in the painting reflects the interests of Spain with regards to these new lands and peoples. It is also worth noting that this painting was created at the end of the 19th century, right as Spain was entering a crisis of identity due to numerous losses of overseas colonies. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/558d4c6264c994b87f939e259688e5ba.jpg ddf01aa63e83f4477ab9beef75933e7d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Death of Socrates Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jacques-Louis David Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Moses Jehng Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1787 Description An account of the resource The painting above depicts the event that influenced Plato's conception of democracy, the execution of his master Socrates. As Socrates did not write anything down (or if he did, we no longer have it), most of our knowledge of him comes from his disciple Plato. Most notably, the manner in which Socrates practiced philosophy became known as the Socratic Method, or arriving at a conclusion via questioning. As such, he would often engage in conversation with his contemporaries, challenging their beliefs with round after round of inquiry. However, these "debates" often did not result in a concrete conclusion other than that the original belief was wrong, and in combination with his sharp tongue (as seen in Plato's depictions of him), this resulted in the citizens of Athens eventually viewing him as a nuisance. Finally, he was brought to trial by his enemies and executed. The democratic means by which this occurred deeply upset Plato, leading to Plato's disenchantment with democracy and the masses (Kraut). Furthermore, the charges brought upon Socrates echo later sentiments during the Scientific Revolution (discussed fifth week). Spurned by his challenges toward the incumbent ideology of Greece, his accusers claimed that he did not believe, or made a mockery of, the gods. Galileo faced similar difficulties upon the introduction of his theories. The painter, Jacques-Louis David, was witness to the French Revolution (discussed week ten of HIST 139). Through his paintings, David would often embody revolutionary values. In The Death of Socrates, for example, themes of intellectual oppression are explored. As stated previously, Socrates was ostensibly (at least to David) executed due to others’ fear of philosophy and knowledge, and with it, social progress. Condemned by the conservatives of Athens for corrupting youth, Socrates was a revolutionary of sorts. Most notably, however, is Socrates’ inspired demeanor within the painting, implicitly offering support for dissidents. In spite of his impending death, Socrates remains does not display grief—rather, he embraces his cause to his grave. This belies a perception of martyrdom behind revolution on Jacques-Louis’ behalf, portraying the dignity of an honorable death. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived David, Jacques-Louis. The Death of Socrates. 1787. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. In The Met. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/436105. Kraut, Richard. "Socrates." Encyclopedia Britannica. October 26, 2018. Accessed November 18, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Socrates. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/bf4fbd08b22ede5786133a010b0c4da8.jpg 2fe8d248a3709723c8c5f850199f95ec Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Aristotle (Copy of Lysippos' Bust of Aristotle) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource (Original) Lysippos Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Moses Jehng Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource (Bust) After 330 BCE Description An account of the resource The bust (above) depicts Aristotle. The student of Plato, Aristotle was another prominent philosopher of Ancient Greece. His works were also studied in the Renaissance, and many of his theories thus made their way into European intellectual history. As with Plato, not much is known about Aristotle's early life except that he attended Plato's Academy. After leaving the Academy following Plato's death, he served as tutor to Alexander the Great. Throughout his life, he produced many writings and taught at his own school, covering a wide range of subjects such as ethics, physics, biology, and more (Kennedy, p. 1-7). At the root of Renaissance notions of humanism and self-actualization was Aristotle (discussed week one of HIST 139). Aristotle believed that each person had a unique potential. To live the best life possible, one must fulfill their potential, and the best political constitution should allow for this. Just as the sapling yearns to grow into a robust tree, so too should we pursue our own growth. One manifestation of Aristotle’s self-actualization was Alberti’s concept of the “Renaissance Man,” or one who trained themselves intellectually, spiritually, artistically, and physically. Men would study classical texts and discuss them to develop their mental abilities, devote themselves to pious living to develop spiritually, pursue the arts to develop artistically, and practice swordplay and acrobatics to develop their physical abilities. Seen as the ideal depiction of a male, the universal improvement characteristic of the Renaissance Man embodied a valuing of self-actualization (Encyclopedia Britannica). Another legacy of Aristotle was that of his scientific theories. Aristotelian science was generally accepted as true until gradually refuted up to its near total rejection throughout the Scientific Revolution. One popular espousal of Aristotle’s thought appeared in astronomy. Believing the cosmos to be perfect, Aristotle proposed that all celestial bodies were flawless—even their movement was conducted in perfect circles. He also propagated a geocentric model. To understand the profound influence Aristotle exerted on Early Modern Europe, one can turn to Galileo’s trial by the Catholic Church. Using a telescope to discover that the planets were not perfect but instead marred on their surfaces, and supporting ideas of heliocentrism and elliptical orbit, Galileo opposed the Aristotelian world-view. In their prosecution of him, the Catholic Church explicitly voiced their discontent with the inconsistencies between his theories and that of Aristotle, whom they claimed was a great thinker and was thus right. Unwilling to acknowledge fault in Aristotle, the Church imprisoned Galileo (Wiesner-Hanks, p. 376-81). Aristotle also contributed to the theory of the four elements, positing that everything was composed of water, earth, air, or fire. This was also generally accepted as truth until the discovery of the atom by Robert Boyle (Wiesner-Hanks, p. 374-5). Prior to that, however, the theory of the elements served as the foundation of other beliefs such as humoralism, which became based on the four elements. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Encyclopedia Britannica. "Renaissance Man." Encyclopedia Britannica. July 20, 1998. Accessed November 17, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Renaissance-man. Kennedy, George A. "Introduction." In On Rhetoric, by Aristotle, 1-7. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2007. Nguyen, Marie-Lan. Bust of Aristotle (Copy of Lysippos). 330 bce. Palazzo Altemps, Rome. In Wikimedia. November 11, 2006. Accessed November 17, 2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe 1450-1789. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Photo is Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/8a0470f3d8354df3ade1e6e9d80b8d32.png 5c3da92b3db0351e9371fc3b24fb8ac0 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Politics Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Aristotle Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Moses Jehng Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 350 BCE Description An account of the resource Authored by Plato’s student Aristotle, Politics is a collection of writings on different political constitutions (though we have a conception of a constitution as a written document, “political constitution” as used by Aristotle is synonymous with “type of government”). Like Plato’s The Republic, Aristotle’s Politics outlines a number of different political constitutions. He proposes the existence of six types of government, three good (monarchy, aristocracy, and polity) and three bad (tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy). Each good constitution has a bad counterpart. During his comparison of polity and democracy (two types of government where the many rule), the difference he points out lays the foundation for future English government—a set of sovereign laws. Sovereign laws are rules that no one is above (a concept later called “rule of law”) and tend not to change unless necessary (Aristotle says that sovereign laws should ideally not change to anchor people to morality, but accepts that sometimes it is warranted). Unlike The Republic, Aristotle does not believe monarchy (called “aristocracy” by Plato) to be the best system, as he states it is not realistically achievable. To find a ruler that exceptional, he believes, is impossible. Similarly, finding a virtuous elite as with aristocracy is difficult. Should one manage it, this superhuman will likely not want to manage a city of lesser beings, nor would they perhaps be bound by our sense of morality. Also, confining rulership to one or few people makes corruption likely (since no one can do anything if the ruler(s) becomes corrupt), and the chances of a larger group making poor judgement is less. Instead, he says polity (rule of the middle class, as they do not oppress the poor as the rich do or resent the rich as the poor do) is the best achievable one (Aristotle, Book II). Aristotle also emphasizes the importance of commerce within Politics. In proposing the ideal city, he suggests that it be located by the sea to facilitate maritime trade. In doing so, the city can be provided with the resources necessary to thrive—however, he does qualify that such the benefits of such trade should be treated with moderation. Furthermore, Aristotle argues that a port can also serve militaristic purposes, allowing a city to defend itself and deter attacks through the presence of a navy. Discussed in weeks seven and eight of HIST 139, the value of maritime commerce and naval presence becomes apparent between the 17th and 18th centuries. England thrived due to its strong navy and connections with the Americas (in addition to its industrialization). The Dutch rose to prominence via the establishing of vast trade networks across Europe. Venice and the Ottoman Empire dominated the Mediterranean Sea, reaping benefits from pillaging and trade. Conversely, countries like France suffered in the Mediterranean as few cities were located on the coast (the opposite of what Aristotle recommended), thus limiting their stake in Mediterranean trade (Wiesner-Hanks, p. 484-526). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Aristotle. Politics. Translated by Carnes Lord, 2nd ed., The University of Chicago Press, 2013. Greek Manuscript of Aristotle's Politics. 1493. Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III, Naples. In Wikimedia. By Franz Steffens. January 26, 2008. Accessed November 17, 2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Greek_manuscript_minuscule_Aristotle.png. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe 1450-1789. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource (Translation) All Rights Reserved https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/bbed0ab78f8549fc76ef28acaad40aee.jpg 2fb30c6d4a30663399813439862553f2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Siege of Granada Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fransisco Pradilla Ortiz Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource John Selkowtiz Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1492 Description An account of the resource “On the day when King Abí Abdilehi shall surrender the fortresses and tower, Their Highnesses shall order that his son shall be returned to him, along with all the hostages, and their wives and children, with the exception of those who have converted to Christianity” (Cowans 16) The excerpt above is a segment of the treaty that surrenders the Kingdom of Granada, the last kingdom that was under control by the Muslim Moors in the Iberian Peninsula. Beginning in the early 8th century the Reconquista was an effort by Christians to take back the Iberian Peninsula from invading Muslim Moors. Over the next few centuries Christian forces that soon became the Spanish kingdoms led the efforts to take back the peninsula. This was finally fully achieved in 1492 with the capture of Grenada. With the successful campaign of the Reconquista, Spain under the rule of Ferdinand and Isabella could now focus on exerting its influence abroad. It is not a coincidence that in that same year Columbus was sponsored by Spain to sail West in order to find a new route to Asia. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granada_War#/media/File:La_Rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/b014929510eff09af2f57192b9a7380c.png a51d1b4d36262b59187972e33869335e https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/19afff7fdefe7a942b1d566057129057.png a420bac44be58cde1257ba2901d10df6 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/5c6b3ff532f75729e9a4d91c39621b3b.png c7b17de07c406cb0b7baf388ae8cd964 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Printed Book Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image Unknown Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letter from Lady Mary Wortley Montague to Mrs. S.C. on Smallpox Inoculations Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lady Mary Wortley Montague Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Printed by Pierre Diderot Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Originally Printed 1800, not dated Description An account of the resource The Scientific Revolution, often described as lasting from the mid 16th century to the end of the 17th century, brought tremendous changes to Europe and redefined the way that they interacted with and understood the natural world. But, though this period is often discussed as the result of the creative thinking of a few notable standouts (Galileo and Newton likely foremost among them,) it was also deeply rooted in the culture and circumstances of Europe during this period. Firstly, it is hardly coincidental that this broad expansion in the understanding of the natural world occurred shortly after the European conception of the worlds size and diversity doubled with the encounter of the Americas. This sparked a deep interest, not only in the economic potentials of the New World, but in the scientific exploration of it as well (though often these two goals were inextricably linked). Spanish discovery of gold, silver, and other precious metals in Central America, for instance led to English investment in new technologies that could be used for the enrichment of the crown and continued defense against the Spanish. They even explored the possibility of alchemy to keep up with the new found wealth of the Spaniards (Harkness, 142). In addition to this broadening of the known world, the Scientific revolution was spurred, and in turn, encouraged a more cohesive scientific and cultural community across Europe. This led to an expansion in communication between intellectuals in different parts of Europe and the increased travel of the nobility and aristocracy for exploration and intellectual betterment (Wiesner-Hanks, 368-369). All of these factors enabled the spread of ideas across much larger areas that served to increase general knowledge throughout the continent and to allow individuals to more efficiently apply their time by reducing the redundancy of study in different corners of the continent. This transmission of knowledge can be seen in the a letter sent home to a friend in England by Lady Mary Wortley Montague, an English aristocrat and the wife of the ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. She writes home of an early method she has learned of for vaccinating children against smallpox which she intends to try to prevent serious illness in her own children. “People send to one another to know if any of their family has a mind to have the small-pox; they make parties for this purpose and when they are met... the old woman comes with a nut-shell full of the matter of the best sort of small-pox, and asks what vein you please to have opened. She immediately rips open that you offer to her, with a large needle (which gives you no more pain than a common scratch) and puts into the vein as much matter as can lie upon the head of her needle, and after that, binds up the little wound with a hollow bit of shell, and in this manner opens four or five eins...Then the fever begins to seize them, and they keep their beds two days, very seldom three. They have very rarely above twenty or thirty [sores] in their faces, which never mark, and in eight days time they are as well as before their illness” (Wortley Montague, 109-110). This case is fascinating as it transmits knowledge of a process that Montague has personally witnessed, and therefore, is sharing evidence of its success, rather than mere hearsay. This letter illustrates the effects of the shrinking world during this period. Ideas and evidence originating with people from around the world were beginning to spread much more quickly and they had the ability to change lives throughout a wider area, thus greatly increasing the impact of the innovations of the Scientific Revolution. This ability to communicate through maritime channels is one of the great legacies of the early modern period in general, and the Scientific Revolution in particular. The advancement of technology and knowledge increases dramatically when inventors, and thinkers can build upon one another's work, no longer duplicating efforts. While this technique shared by Wortley Montague was not widely employed back home, it is representative of a shift toward world wide communications that would advance scientific and medical knowledge in the centuries to come (Wiesner-Hanks, 300). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Fondazione Biblioteca Europea di Informazione e Cultura Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/520a4e3f988bb47db476adf62fb2e36a.jpg ea008f3f8ebf33f1ba9963063561e627 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Ratification of the Treaty of Munster Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gerard ter Borch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1648 Description An account of the resource The Ratification of the Treaty of Munster was a pivotal event in the Peace of Westphalia, which brought an end to the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. The treaty was signed in 1648, alongside the Treaty of Osnabruck, and they established two major precedents which would have a permanent effect on the way politics and balance of power would be structured in Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was fragmented in the treaties into smaller states controlled by the Germanic princes which had been under the umbrella of the Holy Roman Empire’s rule. More importantly, these rulers of smaller individual states would have the role of choosing which of the three religions recognized in the treaty--Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism--would be the official religion of their state. No outside power could interfere with this decision and it would only be applicable to the individual state of the specific ruler. This non-interference agreement in the Peace of Westphalia established the modern idea of state-sovereignty as it is known today: that states have sovereignty over almost all their domestic decisions and no external state has the right to interfere with those decisions and actions under international law. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived National Gallery London via Wikimedia Commons Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/03783eeab88f5f4bb415115a1d43eaeb.jpeg f19b645e4dc77c9651328c0f8db37d7e Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data This image has been taken from scan 000027 from "[Through Spain: a narrative of travel and adventure. ... Illustrated.]". The title and subject terms of this image have been generated from tags, created by users of the British Library's flickr photostream. Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 1207x1536px Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cortes Armor (from the Royal Armory) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Publisher: R. Bentley & Son Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Teddy Wolfe Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1886 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived “Aztec Empire from ‘[Through Spain: A Narrative of Travel and Adventure. ... Illustrated.].’” Europeana Collections. Accessed November 13, 2018. https://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/9200387/BibliographicResource_3000117289164.html. Matthew Restall, Seven Myths of Spanish Conquest, (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003) Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Marked Description An account of the resource Hernán Cortes was a prominent Spanish Conquistador who went on an expedition against the Aztec empire. The attached image is of the armor he used during the trip. It was placed in a Spanish museum to honor his legacy and represents some of the mythos surrounding him. Cortés legacy was built on letters to the King that allowed him to become one of “…the most recognizable of God’s agents… [due to their] rapid publication and wide circulation…” (Restall, 14). He became a symbol of imperial policy, and his accounts were a justification of imperial actions, as they showed him spreading civilization and Christianity throughout the New World. Yet, it’s important to remember that these were HIS texts. They were biased. Despite this, subsequent historians held them up, as seen with his armor being placed in a museum, and from this quote by historian Charles Gibson in 1966, “Although no conquistador rivaled Cortés in military skill or in the capacity to control the conquest aftermath, all subsequent campaigns were… modeled upon the conquest of the Aztec empire” (Restall, 19). Yet, Cortés was not the first to use many of his now-famous tactics, as plenty were commonly used or simply myth— like burning his ships. Furthermore, much of the credit for the invasion should be given to the native warriors who fought alongside him. He had plenty of native allies, as many other groups like the Huejotzincans sought to exploit the Spanish arrival to challenge the Aztécs. These groups, “…saved Spaniards from starvation, rescued individual Spaniards, acted as spies, and fought along with Spanish horsemen in sorties against the besiegers” (Restall, 49). Without these services, Spaniards most likely wouldn’t have been able to get a foothold in the New World— as they had no idea how to speak the languages or what was edible among the new plants and animals. Colonialism Conquistadors Cortes Native Americans spain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/ef2b8c95718882761c711c7031b7301c.png 0310ea202e015f920d7416cd67ad21c8 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Woodcut Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Map of Silesia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Martin Helwig Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Andrew Fitch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1561 Description An account of the resource 16th century Europe saw the rise of the nation-state in many kingdoms. Monarchs across Europe sought to consolidate their power and develop large centralized institutions (Wiesner-Hanks 88). Additionally, New military technology led to an increase in the cost of war which also worked to shift the balance of power from nobles to monarchs because nobles could no longer afford to field a sizeable army (Wiesner-Hanks 95). However, despite the attempts of Charles V, the Holy Roman Empire never succeeded in establishing itself as a nation-state with a strong central government. While there were many factors at play that prevented the consolidation of the Holy Roman Empire, one important factor was the resistance of Northern German cities and regions. The cities’ and regions’ efforts to resist the Emperor and retain their autonomy can be seen in contemporary German maps. During the 16th century, maps were an important tool used by monarchs to inspire a sense of cohesion to the central government. There were two major types of European maps in the 16th Century: chorographic and geographic. Geographic maps showed the territory of a whole country. It makes sense then that these maps were often used as tools to promote a sense of loyalty to the central government as they portrayed a monarchs land as a single, continuous nation without the dividing lines of states or cities (Mundy 7). Chorographic maps, on the other hand, focused on displaying a particular region or city and were often more artistic in style. As a result, these maps inspired pride in one's local community since they depicted cities or regions as individual entities. Chorographic maps were especially significant with regards to the Holy Roman Empire because, at the same time Northern German regions and cities were resisting the Emperor, many chorographic maps were published in Germany. These maps, like the one above, became representative of the autonomy of many Northern German cities and regions (Mundy 5). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Helwig#/media/File:Helwig.png Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain