10 12 202 https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/27cdaa32325c0a6a22ae6d97a11df40f.jpg 848945683404d8b4f45595a4f1f4c17c Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 62 x 72 cm Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mauritshuis, the Hague Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Painting: Bartholomeus Johannes van Hove Architect: Jacob van Campen Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Brendan Glenn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Built 1644 Description An account of the resource In the 1600s the young Dutch Republic was the envy of Europe. Despite their small size and decentralized government structure, the United Provinces of the Netherlands managed to make themselves the middlemen of the world in the 17th century by leveraging their capable shipbuilders and shrewd merchants to create a trade network that spanned the world. Being the site of the full flowering of merchant capitalism has its benefits, of course, and the Dutch Golden Age is defined as such because the massive wealth accrued by the Netherlands produced an average standard of living far higher than that of other European nations (Britannica). The greatest beneficiaries of this increased prosperity were, of course, those who already possessed a great deal of money: the landed aristocracy and the urban merchant class. The way that these groups reacted to their new status as, bar certain powerful nobles, the richest people in Europe while also acknowledging the uniquely democratic (well, oligarchic) nature of their government can be most clearly seen in the houses which they chose to live in, of which the Mauritshuis is emblematic. Built in 1644 during its owner Johan Maurits’ term as governor of the Dutch colony in Brazil on behalf of the Dutch West India Company, the Mauritshuis is a townhouse designed to convey both Maurits’ wealth as well as his respectably refined taste (History Mauritshuis). The roughly square building is situated at the heart of the Hague, the Netherlands’ political center, and is deliberately noticeable: the four facades are set with Ionic pilasters and garlands whose bright white stone (which is also used for the windowsills) complements the pinkish brick which forms the rest of the wall, and which contrasts pleasantly with the bluish-grey tiles of the elegantly-sloped roof. Still, the Mauritshuis isn’t ostentatious. It has only two main stories and an attic level, and though the colors are pleasant (the house was nicknamed the “sugar palace” (History Mauritshuis)), they aren’t dazzling, nor are the classical decorations very elaborate. The most highly-ornamental part of the house are the pediments over the entrance and on the opposite facade, which bring to mind a Greek temple and are likely meant to reference the democratic ideals of what was at the time Europe’s most successful republic. There are smaller pediments on the second-story windows, and while these are most likely meant to provide verticality to what otherwise might be a fairly boxy structure they can also be seen as reinforcing this message, announcing that despite Johan Maurits’ status as a nobleman of middling rank (he was a count (History Mauritshuis)), he was most importantly a man whose power and wealth came from his own success as a merchant. The Mauritshuis communicates its owner’s wealth and taste, as well as the appropriate political beliefs for a public figure of the Dutch Golden Age. These effects would have been important for the new bourgeois class of merchants coming to dominate the Netherlands, and which would soon become preeminent throughout Europe, whose members needed a way to negotiate their new status--hence the expensive decorations--while also seeming to be moral and respectful of their betters, and thus restricted in their aesthetic sensibility. Despite, therefore, the fact that the Mauritshuis’ owner was noble, it is no coincidence that buildings like it served as the houses for most of the Netherlands’ merchant class. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived "Netherlands." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Netherlands/Cultural-life#ref35839 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bartholomeus_Johannes_van_Hove,_Het_Mauritshuis_te_Den_Haag.jpg "History Mauritshuis." Mauritshuis. 2018. https://www.mauritshuis.nl/en/discover/mauritshuis/history-of-the-building/ Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain; free re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/eb9186d52971a45b5ae055f2100491fb.png 18ae66c25558a2c82c50683a6b5a7828 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cross Cultural Interaction and Early Modern European Art Description An account of the resource This collection examines the advancements in maritime trade and foreign contact and how this impacted art during Early Modern Europe. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rylyn Monahan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1500-1800 Physical Object An inanimate, three-dimensional object or substance. Note that digital representations of, or surrogates for, these objects should use Moving Image, Still Image, Text or one of the other types. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mechanical Galleon Description An account of the resource This late 16th century German automaton mimics in miniature a masted galleon that would have sailed across the Atlantic to the New World. Designed to carry troops and guns, the actual galleon was specifically manufactured for a European navy with seafaring in mind and by proxy, the mechanical galleon, a gilded ship which set sail across the dining table of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, represented the beginnings of Imperialism and colonization. During the late 15th and 16th centuries, “Europe's view of the world and of its place in it was completely transformed” because of the influx of new information about people, plants, and animals coming from foreign countries (BBC). A metaphor in motion, the galleon likened the ship to state, since the word “‘governor’ comes from the Latin for ‘helmsman’ - ‘gubernator,’ so while the royals and elites admired the galleon, they recognized their state’s power in the maritime setting as well as the technological prowess of producing an instrument that served as a clock, an automaton, and a music player (BBC). The materials for the galleon, brass and steel, as well as the intricacy of its construction illustrates the Hapsburg’s increased wealth from the silver trade in the Americas. This interest in the mechanical extended to other automata during the late 16th century, and princely collectors kept them in kunstkammen or art chambers with limited access (Keating 14). The extreme interest in an object in motion reflected contemporary European interests in animating the inanimate and controlling the inhuman. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Schlottheim Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived <a href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1866-1030-1" target="_blank" title="British Museum" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1866-1030-1</a> Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1580-1590 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Rylyn Monahan Americas automaton clock Germany https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/7064fae3b28ebec175b192bcb54dc64d.jpg 2b11637fa62e3a0ffa0d45dafc084d64 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Medal in Commemoration of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pope Gregory XIII Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Matthew Walsh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource c. 1572 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Wikimedia Commons, original image available <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gregory_XIII_medal.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a> Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain, with full explanation on image page above. Description An account of the resource This medal was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII in commemoration of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, one of the bloodiest events of the French Wars of Religion. Catholics targeted and killed many prominent Protestants who were in Paris for the wedding of the king’s sister and the Protestant King Henry of Navarre. Estimates of the death toll vary widely, from thousands to tens of thousands (Wiesner-Hanks, 193). It weakened the Huguenot cause by killing off many of its important leaders, radicalized those who remained Protestant, and provoked continued bloodshed and violence between France’s two religious groups. In response to hearing of the massacre, Pope Gregory XIII ordered that the solemn canticle of thanksgiving, the Te Deum, be sung. Paintings of key events from Paris were commissioned by famed artist Giorgio Vasari. Gregory XIII also ordered this medal struck. It features on the obverse his bust, and on the reverse the Latin phrase “UGNOTTORUM STRAGES”, translated as “Overthrow of the Huguenots.” Catholic sources emphasize that the pope had no advance warning of the massacre and also suggest that the news reports which reached Rome implicated the Huguenots in a plot against the king’s life (Goyau, np). Nevertheless, this medal symbolizes the heavy response of the papacy to the Protestant Reformation sweeping Europe and the often violent measures the Bishops of Rome employed and endorsed in an effort to stamp out heresy. The medal also shows that national political events were inextricably linked to larger, European religious developments and that the papacy was a distinctly international institution. https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/de87ffa0d356ef2b85642c45efe16e69.jpg c1edf4073ef7935569cb590136340eb9 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Medical Observations Concerning the History and Cure of Acute Diseases Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Thomas Sydenham Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Jack Williams Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1676 Description An account of the resource While a compiled work of Thomas Sydenham's has already been included in this exhibit, it is valuable to consider one of his work’s influence in English economic history and the history of opium as a whole. In his book discussing medical observations of acute diseases Sydenham prescribes a proprietary mixture of dissolved opium, which he refers to as laudanum, as a cure for a wide range of diseases, from fevers to “hysteria.” His new medicine was so successful that laudanum came to refer to any suspension of opium in alcohol, not just Sydenham’s original mixture (Hodgson). Aside from the influence this had on British medicine, the acceptance of opium as a legitimate medical cure led to significant changes in the way by which the British traded with India and China. By the mid-18th century British trade with China had become an important part of the British economy, but the English were constantly at a trade deficit with the Chinese, only receiving Chinese imports without exporting anything in return. The discovery of opium’s medical capabilities changed this however, leading to massive trade in opium in its many forms to China (Van Dyke). This trade existed before Sydenham’s work in creating laudanum however, by normalizing it amongst other medicines lead to the trade in laudanum coming to the mainland of Europe and Britain in a way that had not occurred before Sydenham’s work. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/record/90402/RP_P_1904_3642.html?q=thomas+sydenham Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/e805b64f24549481aa8f573cf74b80e7.jpeg d7fa3063ea3e7accbf1027d8a4156b5f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Medieval Coin Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Papal States Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1469 Description An account of the resource This coin was a common currency for the Papal states during the mid to late 15th century. Politically currency was important to the Papal States so they could continue to hold sway over the italian city states and rest of Europe. However between 1300s-1600s, it is clear Italy is the poster child of child of economic decline, which needs to be seen through a political lens. Italian city-states, such as Florence were dependent on agriculture as well as luxury industry, which primarily dealt with high quality textiles (Lachmann 354). It was partly due to the fact that Italian textiles were costlier to produce in comparison to Britain (Hanlon 205). In addition, the shift to trading in the Atlantic dried up many of the city states main consumers leaving them with a much smaller number of potential consumers. Ironically, the Italian city-states were at the height of their power regarding there influence in trading with their neighbors. Once the Atlantic began, Italian city states suffered a massive decrease in there trading profits. Economic developments in the Italian city states, were grounded, by the inability of the political elite to create political policies, that could reform their economic system and help them survive economic disasters. The economic hardships Italian, such as Florence, faced, were due to mainly political reasons. In Florence, it was mainly due to the consolidation of economic power under the Medici’s and the “continuing power of guilds that supported the ruling elites” (Lachmann 357). The political policies adopted by Italian city states had an adverse effect on Italy’s economic growth in the early modern period. Economic developments in the Italian city states, were grounded, by the inability of the political elite to create political policies, that could reform their economic system and help them survive economic disasters. The economic hardships Italian, such as Florence, faced, were due to mainly political reasons. In Florence, it was mainly due to the consolidation of economic power under the Medici’s and the “continuing power of guilds that supported the ruling elites” (Lachmann 357). The political policies adopted by Italian city states had an adverse effect on Italy’s economic growth in the early modern period. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Papal States. MEDIEVAL COIN. 1464. A Papal States Coin, Papal States Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/7a810b0c90b3014816bcf78b8db2da35.png 57a487c44afd6e7221ff7cb264bf55e6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Memoirs by Glikl bas Judah Leib Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Glikl bas Judah Leib Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Changlan Wang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1719 Description An account of the resource Glikl was a Jewish businesswoman who advised her husband on business matters while raising their twelve children. She took over the whole business at his death, rescued “her eldest son from repeated bankruptcies, and expanding into new markets” (Wiesner-hanks, 454). This paragraph is an excerpt from her memoir. Glikl was proved to be a very unusual women, partly because her religious affiliation as a Jewish. “Because Jews were prohibited from staying in most inns run by Christians” and “Judaism prized the life of a scholar more than that of a merchant,” Glikl had a rather wide “networks of friends with whom women can stay safely” and was freer to “run businesses than their Christian neighbors” (Wiesner-hanks, 454). However, from a different perspective, particularly in comparison to the working status of married and unmarried women in Sweden during approximately the same time period. Glikl’s opportunity and success could also be partially credited to the importance of marriage, especially for women, in the 16-19th century. For example, in 16-18th century Sweden, although women in general were in the same industries or occupations as men did, except military, married and unmarried women had very different occupations. For example, ever-married women were much more visible in “administrative and managerial work, trade in real estate, general trade and credit transactions” (Lindstrom et al., 243). On the other hand, married women were relatively “inconspicuous in categories such as unspecified work, agriculture, transport, other specified work, and theft and misappropriation” where the presence of unmarried women were more profound (Lindstrom et al. 243). Thus, Glikl’s success as a businesswoman could also be associated with the opportunities for married women. Woman obtains the role of head of household when she marries and thus is conferred with more resources like land and other legal capacity. Although the necessity of marriage for women to be in these higher levels of occupations created a sense of women’s dependency on men, the autonomy and relative independency that women gained after marriage also shouldn’t be underestimated. As Lindstrom and others argued that, “marriage put both women and men in a position where they could use the labor of other people for their own benefits” (Lindstrom et al., 245). Women may not be in an inherently dispositional disadvantage in marriage. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Judah Leib, Glickl bas. Memoirs. Translated by Marvin Lowenthal. New York: Schocken, 1987. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Prominent Women https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/ed587f56b3d16752ff34601a17b5377e.jpg e6a333ac234e0a45e4a5f90015115680 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Merode Altarpiece Annunciation Triptych Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Robert Campin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1428 Description An account of the resource The triptych is a significant art-piece of the Northern Renaissance that stresses the ideas of Northern Humanism, specifically individual and personal study of the Bible. Campin achieves this message through targeted imagery and symbolism, specifically the depiction of a significant Biblical scene, the Annunciation, in a traditional Flemish home and town of the area. By placing the scene in a familiar setting for viewers of the piece, as well as incorporating symbolism of Christian Humanism through the open Bible in the center being studied, and the presence of the Holy Spirit in the central panel. These reinforced ideas of Christian Humanism play a crucial role in, and boldy foreshadow, the later development of political ideologies in Europe, specifically Liberalism. The focus on the potential of the individual to study and interpret the Bible for oneself which is exhibited in this piece, and in works of the Northern Renaissance and Christian Humanism, are parallel to Liberalism, which similarly focuses on the potential of the individual in society with limited control by a greater source of authority/the government (or in the case of Christian Humanism, the Church). Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Workshop of Robert Campin [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/fd0a922c148f3768cd55aa8e455b53ad.jpeg 95c0f82b4ded1978325c21e48acac3aa Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Digital photo Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 1,200 × 1,600 pixels Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Monument of Spanish King Philip IV on Place de Oriente, Madrid Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Aklyuch Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Elliot Cahn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 17 July 2006 Description An account of the resource Perhaps the most famous figure of the Scientific Revolution is the Italian mathematician Galileo Galilei, known for his contributions to the fields of astronomy and physics. He famously quarreled with the Inquisition due to controversy over his religious interpretations of his astronomical discoveries (Freedberg 123), finally resulting in Galileo’s house arrest in 1633 that would last until his death in 1642. This did not stop him, however, from making great contributions to science and culture. Lost among the many advances attributed to Galileo is the Monument to King Philip IV if Spain. King Philip IV ruled Spain from 1621 to 1665, which coincided with both the Spanish Golden Age and the Scientific Revolution. Philip commissioned the creation of an equestrian statue of himself similar to the famous statue of his father, Philip III. Italian sculptor Pietro Tacca, who worked on this project from 1633 to 1640, undertook an impossible challenge to support the statue only using the hind legs of the horse. This task had never been successfully completed, and common practice was to have the horse stand on at least three legs so that the weight of the statue could be evenly distributed. Tacca eventually contacted Galileo to help him solve this problem. Galileo’s solution was to hollow the front of the horse while keeping the back solid so that a majority of the statue’s weight would be over the rear legs. He also recommended having the tail connect to the base of the statue, which would provide more support to the rear (Valentiner 36). Galileo’s propositions were successfully implemented, and the equestrian statue of Philip IV still stands today as a monument of Galileo’s ingenuity. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carlos-IV.JPG Freedberg, David. The Eye of the Lynx: Galileo, His Friends, and the Beginnings of Modern Natural History. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2004. Valentiner, W. R. "AN EQUESTRIAN STATUETTE OF PHILIP IV OF SPAIN." Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts of the City of Detroit 15, no. 3 (1935): 34-38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41501407. Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Free Re-use https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/399493e7620c376716d2963f95927524.pdf a10e019fe674143e84384c784579d8dd Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Moses and Michael's Final Paper https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/595bf0beda72d8b8abed67669a240326.png 5f3e4e83532d11a2ef56b7eaf551bdf5 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Moses Brought Before Pharaoh's Daughter Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource William Hogarth Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Claire Guang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1746 Description An account of the resource During the 18th century, landscape became increasingly popular. Additionally, a new interest was placed on history painting. These pieces usually depict a moment in a story which were often moments in religious narratives. This particular piece by Hogarth depicts Moses being given away by his birth mother to the Egyptian princess, his new adopted mother. We don’t see a lot of religious works during this time, as the Anglican Church has become lax and complacent during the 18th century. Unlike previous centuries, religion was respected and tensions between religious groups were not high. Thus, interest in religion during this time was more academic and pragmatic. Although a religious piece, Hogarth does not use this moment to depict morals values, but rather to allude to the themes of childhood, charity, and adoption. This piece was given to the Foundling Hospital, and is one of Hogarth’s more uplifting pieces. His other pieces tended to focus on satire, and dark humor to point out the flaws of society. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived https://www.wikiart.org/en/william-hogarth/moses-brought-before-pharaoh-s-daughter-1746 https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/moses-brought-before-pharaohs-daughter-191926 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/f488ad4c76a4febb63b3de998953baca.jpg 950717df53c5cd4c0aa66f5a165ae4f7 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Painting Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 759 × 551 pixels (for photo) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Motin de Esquilache Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Francisco Goya Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Teddy Wolfe Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Around between 1766 and 1767 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Goya, Attributed to Francisco. Motin de Esquilache. between circa and circa 1767 date QS:P571,+1766- -00T00:00:00Z/8,P1319,+1766-00-00T00:00:00Z/9,P1326,+1767-00-00T00:00:00Z/9,P1480,Q5727902 1766. Painting. Private collectioninstitution QS:P195,Q768717. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Esquilache_riots.jpg. D. A. Brading, The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State. Cambridge [England] ; New York, N.Y., USA: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Iris H. W. Engstrand. "The Enlightenment in Spain: Influences upon New World Policy." The Americas 41, no. 4 (1985): 436-44. doi:10.2307/1007350. Pedro de Zamora Hurtado, “The Situation in Seville (1652)” in Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History, ed. Jon Cowans, (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 172 Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, “On Spectacles and Public Entertainments (1790)” in Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History, ed. Jon Cowans, (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 256 J. Neumann, "Great Historical Events That Were Significantly Affected by the Weather: 2, The Year Leading to the Revolution of 1789 in France." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 58, no. 2 (1977): 163. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26218058. “Laws of the Bourbon Monarchy” in Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History, ed. Jon Cowans, (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 225 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Public Domain Description An account of the resource In 1766, King Charles III implemented a policy banning long capes and broad-brimmed hats, despite the populace’s growing resentment towards rising prices (Brading, 536). Charles hoped the change in wardrobe would modernize the appearance of his people, with a transition to French three-cornered hats (Brading, 499). Instead, the result was a series of massive riots in March, the Esquilache Riots, that forced the King to flee and destroyed property throughout Madrid. By the end, the King was forced to listen to the rioters’ demands, firing several key figures and undoing the fashion reform (Engstrand, 439). Those key figures and the fashion law represented Charles’s attempt to reform the country, which took a big step back with the riots. Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos suggests that these reforms caused the riots, as he blames them on the government’s inability, “…to allow [the citizens] to entertain themselves” (Cowans, 256). In this interpretation, the government limited Spanish citizens’ ability to act as they pleased— in this case wear long capes and broad-brimmed hats— causing them to riot to get what they wanted. This interpretation is supported by the fact that citizens smashed many lamp-posts put in Madrid as part of the reforms, and asked in their demands for the fashion reform to be struck down. Therefore, resentment towards reform may have been a major reason for the riots. Yet, this reasoning ignores the presence of high prices. High prices were extremely influential in starting riots in this period, as Seville rioted in 1652 over bread prices and nearby France had its 1789 Revolution kicked off over protests against bread prices (Cowans, 172; Neumann, 163). Furthermore, other Bourbon reforms had been implemented since 1700, and continued past this point. Therefore, while the riots may have been a set-back, they didn’t end the reform movement, or seek to cause it any massive damage later (Cowans, 225). Bread enlightenment riots spain https://earlymoderneurope.hist.sites.carleton.edu/files/original/0f709923071ee367d0de03f82fbeb336.jpg 67cbe2717e1d2e6a09d51c5b164dd8ee Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photograph Physical Dimensions The actual physical size of the original image 4608 x 3072 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Museo del Prado, Madrid Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Photograph: Emilio J. Rodriguez Pasada Architect: Juan de Villanueva Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Brendan Glenn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Built starting 1785 Description An account of the resource Neoclassical architecture, which looked not to the Renaissance for its inspiration as the preceding baroque and rococo styles had, but instead to the classical world, was Enlightenment philosophy realized as marble and glass. Like their counterparts in the Renaissance, neoclassical architects believed that applying mathematical ratios and ideal geometries when creating their work allowed them to create beauty. The difference between the two groups was that while the ideals of the Renaissance centered around mathematics as inherently beautiful and held that replication of the classical world’s techniques was a means for producing ideal art, neoclassical theory was concerned less with the physical beauty of a structure and more with its symbolic meaning. This is not to say that neoclassical buildings are ugly, but instead that their beauty and their references to classical work were intended to reflect reason, which was held by the Enlightenment-inspired neoclassicists to be the root of all knowledge and virtue. The mathematical purity, clean lines, and stark white materials characteristic of neoclassicism therefore managed to do something that not even the extravagant architects of the baroque period had managed to accomplish: for the first time since the Renaissance, European architecture began to properly shake loose the conventions of the classical world. The design of the Museo del Prado in Madrid, and specifically of its facade looking out onto the Paseo del Prado, is physical evidence for the beginning of this process. This argument may seem a bit confusing. After all, neoclassicism was definitionally classical; leaving aside the fact that “classicism” is in the name of the movement, the style’s clear fondness for columns, white marble, “perfect” mathematical designs, and other hallmarks of classical design indicate that neoclassicism did anything but turn away from the Greco-Roman tradition. The Museo del Prado’s facade would likewise appear to back this reading of neoclassicism up: commissioned by Spain’s King Charles III and built starting in 1785 by the architect Juan de Villanueva, the museum which now houses the world’s largest collection of Spanish art was initially designed as the home for Spain’s national Natural History Cabinet, and it looks the part (Museo del Prado, History of the Museum). On the building’s facade, a portico supported by large columns projects out towards the Paseo del Prado. This portico is topped by a relief carving and set against a wall composed of statue-filled niches beneath second-floor windows that are framed on either side by the columns of an Ionic colonnade. Save the occasional use of red brick, the facade is almost entirely made of white marble, and one could be forgiven for mistaking it at first glance for some misplaced and renovated Roman basilica. Then, however, the discrepancies between the Prado’s style and that of the Romans (or the Renaissance) would start to become noticeable. For one thing, though the columns abutting the second-story windows are Ionic, they are smoothly cylindrical rather than fluted, and the large columns supporting the portico are Tuscan, the simplest of the ancient orders. Moreover, the facade’s pediment is rectangular, not triangular. This is an earth-shattering design choice. It is difficult to explain how irregular a rectangular pediment is from a classicist perspective, except to say that it’s a bit like seeing a Spanish Colonial building whose arches are square, or an American suburban house with a flat roof. In the classical tradition, one simply does not make a pediment rectangular. It might not even be proper to call such features “pediments.” Either way, though, the Prado’s pediment is indeed rectangular, which communicates a key feature of neoclassical architecture: though neoclassicism was inspired by classicism, it was not beholden to it. Villanueva designed the Prado to house a museum, but he also wanted to create a rational building. White marble and clean lines helped to achieve that, but so would replacing the traditional silhouette-interrupting triangular pediment with a flat, rectangular one. That, therefore, is what Villanueva did. If rational design, if the ideals of the Enlightenment, seemed to require that some pieces of classical tradition be abandoned, then that was something neoclassical architects were prepared to do. Not every neoclassical building does this, of course, nor would this change come quickly, but the Prado’s clean, flat, rectilinear design reflects the beginning of a shift away from early modern Europe’s idolization of classical design and towards, arguably, the simple, purely geometric aspirations of Modernism and the advent of the International Style some 200 years after the Prado’s construction. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived History of the Museum, Museo del Prado, 2018. https://www.museodelprado.es/en/museum/history-of-the-museum https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Museo_del_Prado_2016_(25185969599).jpg Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Creative Commons 2.0; free re-use